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The Standard Parts Company 

Cleveland, Ohio 




CONQUERORS 



A SPECIAL PUBLICATION 

by 

THE CLEVELAND 
ENGINEERING SOCIETY 

Chamber of Commerce Building 
CLEVELAND, OHIO 




PRICE, TWENTY-FIVE CENTS 
NINETEEN SEVENTEEN 



Copyright 1917 by 
The Cleveland Engineering Society 



JUL 29 1318 



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FOREWORD 

The Cleveland Engineering Society presents this Special Publication as a 
contribution to the work of the Committee on Co-operation. Its aim is to suggest 
a means for supplying an important public need. There is a desire on the part of 
the public for information on engineering subjects and for a degree of familiarity 
with engineering practice which will permit a fuller utilization of the service which 
engineers are prepared to give. The satisfaction of this desire is important because 
it is through the exerci&e of the functions of the engineer that the resources of 
nature and of science are marshalled together for the use and convenience of man, 
and a better understanding on the part of those with whom the demands originate 
of the direct and efficient ways in which these resources may be made available 
will make for a better, freer use of engineering service. 

If the engineering profession can, through the medium of a well-conducted 
magazine, so familiarize the public with fundamental ideas concerning the inception 
and carrying through of engineering works, it will become more difficult for glib- 
tongued orators and opportunist politicians to lead it astray with theories and 
schemes which do little more than increase taxation. 

The successful achievement of such a purpose is so great an undertaking that 
it is only through the co-operation of a considerable portion of the profession that 
hope may be had for its accomplishment. For that reason, co-operation haS' been 
sought and found throughout the length and breadth of the land among engineering 
societies, colleges and practicing engineers. 

The material used in the publication has been furnished freely by eminent 
and busy men engaged in widely different branches of engineering. Libraries, 
museums, and publishers have responded cheerfully to requests for data and illustra- 
tions. The papers have been edited through the co-operation of The Washington 
Society of Engineers. 

The Cleveland Engineering Society acknowledges with gratitude and with 
pleasure the many kind expressions and courtesies incident to its labors- and herewith 
extends to all who either aid directly or contribute their good wishes to its labors, 
the good-fellowship and co-operation of a strong, vigorous and potential organization 
of engineers. 



CO-OPERATION 

Co-operation in bringing out this special publication and placing it before 
the public has been furnished by the following colleges and engineering societies: 

Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio. 

Cornell University, College of Civil Engineering, Ithaca, N. Y. 

Iowa State College, Division of Engineering, Ames, Iowa. 

Leland Stanford, Jr., University, Associated Civil Engineering Society, Stanford 

University, California. 
Ohio State University, College of Engineering, Columbus, Ohio. 
Northwestern University, College of Engineering, Evanston, Illinois. 
Purdue University, School of Engineering, Lafayette, Indiana. 
University of Illinois, Illinois State University Engineering Association, 

Urbana, Illinois. 
University of Cviichigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 

University of Pittsburgh, School of Engineering, Pittsburgh, Pa. 
University of Alissouri, College of Engineering, Columbia, Mo. 
University of PennsyWania, Towne Scientific School, Philadelphia, Pa. 
University of Wisconsin, College of Engineering, Madison, Wisconsin. 
Committee on Engineering Co-operation, Chicago, Illinois. 
American Association of Engineers, Chicago, Illinois. 
American Railway Engineering Association, Chicago, Illinois. 
Brooklyn Engineers' Club, Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Chattanooga Engineers' Club, Chattanooga, Tenn. 
Civil Engineers' Society of St. Paul, St. Paul, Minn. 
Detroit Engineering Society, Detroit, Michigan. 
Engineers' Club of St. Louis, St. Louis, Mo. 
Engineers' Club of Trenton, Trenton, N. J. 
Engineering Association of Nashville, Nashville, Tenn. 
Illinois Engineering Society, Springfield, Illinois. 
Ohio Engineering Society, Columbus, Ohio. 
Washingten Society of Engineers, Washington, D. C. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Peacefulness and Greatness of the Earliest Engineers 

By Geo. H. Johnson 9 

Making Homes in the Desert 

By F. H. Newell 16 

Public Water Supply 

By George W. Fuller Z7 

Transportation 

By A. W. Johnston 49 

Some Notable Masonry Bridges 

By Henry S. Jacoby 67 

Measurement of Stream Flow by the United States Geological 
Survey 

By John C. Hoyt 81 

Recent Developments in Naval Architecture 

By Chas. F. Gross 89 




Property of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. 

The Conquerors 



Painted by Jonas Lie. 



THE title selected by tke artist for kis picture, 
"Tlie Conquerors' \ illustrating tke famous Culebra 
Cut on tke Panama Canal calls to mind tke Spanisk 
equivalent "Los Conquistadores ' and so suggests some 
contrasts between tke work oi tke American engineer 
and tkat of tke stout old Conquistador wko centuries 
ago fougkt kis way across tke Istkmus to tke discovery 
of tke Pacific. 

(L Balboa crusked savage kuman foes ; tke engineer 
conquered disease, a far more deadly enemy. 

C Balboa brougkt bloodsked and ruin to tke natives 
of tke Istkmus ; tke engineer brougkt prosperity and 
peace. 

41, Balboa aimed to monopolize tke Pacmc and tke 
lands it batkes ; tke engineer united two oceans by a 
w^orld-free w^aterw^ay. 

CL Balboa left no trail; tke trail of tke engineer will 
endure for ages. 

^ Tke Conquistador kungered for loot and selfisk 
gain; tke engineer builded tkat men migkt live and 
profit by a greater freedom of tke seas. 

d. Conquerors botk, wkick was tke greater? 



Jonas Lie was torn in Norway in 1880. At the age of twelve Kis fatker died 
and after a short residence with a famous uncle m Pans he went to live w^ith 
his mother in New York City. His education in art was obtained in New York 
and the sufficiency of that education and his native ability are evidenced by 
the hanging of his pictures in most of the important galleries of the United 
States. 



THE CONQUERORS 

The Peacefulness and Greatness of the Earliest 

Engineers 

By Geo. H. Johnson* 



Engineering science is sometimes 
said to have originated in war — in the 
building of fortifications for defense 
or of miHtary machines for battering 
down such defenses — but while this 
was the chief work of engineers for 
long periods in the middle ages, yet 
the origin of this great science is 
found not in military but in civil engi- 
neering. The river Nile overflowed 
and fertilized ancient Egypt as it does 
the Egypt of today, and as its annual 
inundation obHterated in greater or 
lesser degree the primitive landmarks, 
necessity, "the mother of invention," 
called forth the beginnings of the 
surveyor's skill. Rude and primitive 
as were these first attempts they were 
yet the infancy of the present giant . 
and ushered in the science of geometry, ' 
without which no modern engineer^ 
can be trained. Linear measurement 
was the extent of Egyptian geometry, 
and the development of the science 
had to wait centuries for the Grecian 
learning of Pythagoras, who gave his 
name to the proposition that the square 
of the hypotenuse of a right-angled 
triangle was equal to the sum of the 
squares of the other two sides, and to 
Euclid, whose presentation of the 
first principles of geometry has re- 
mained substantially unchanged for 
2,000 years and has secured to him 
a continuity of fame as an author 
absolutely unrivaled by any maker of 
text books either before or since. 

As the overflowing Nile gave birth 
to geometry, so the necessity of con- 

*Professor of History, Case School of Applied 
Science, Cleveland, O. 



serving its life-preserving waters gave 
birth to irrigation, which culminated 
in the famous Lake Moeris of class- 
ical geographers and early travelers. 
We can scarcely wonder at the en- 
thusiasm of those Greek and Roman 
visitors who journeyed to this huge 
reservoir, whose construction was be- 
gun in the early years of the twelfth 
dynasty, the time of the building of 
the first canal connecting the Nile 
with the Red Sea, and was completed 
by the son and successor of the third 
Sesostris. The date of this construc- 
tion may be placed as far back of 
Homer and the Trojan war as the 
time of Homer was before the birth of 
Christ, each period being practically 
a thousand years. Lake Moeris (or 
the Fayum, according to modern 
nomenclature) had a natural bed in a 
depression some 40 miles across, into 
which the river burst at its flood. 
To retain the vast quantity of water 
thus stored for the long, dry months 
of the year, a retaining wall 27 miles 
long was built and a reservoir, which 
finally embraced between 25,000 and 
30,000 acres, was constructed. As 
most visitors approached the lake on 
the side of the great wall they as- 
sumed that the entire lake was arti- 
ficial, and they so described it in 
their accounts of Egypt. We do not 
need to exaggerate either the great- 
ness or the benefit of this work to 
appreciate the skill, the success, and 
the service of the engineers of an 
age 20 centuries before Christ and 
12 centuries before the founding of 
Rome, an age when even the Greeks 



10 



The Conquerors 




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The Peacefulness and Greatness of the Early Engineer 



11 



were still in the stage of barbarism 
and had not yet reached the land to 
which their name was subsequently 
given. 

Fully 500 years before the building 
of Lake Moeris Egyptian engineers 
had begun a useful system of canal 
construction, which, as already inti- 
mated, was to culminate in the first 
predecessor of the present Suez Canal. 
The earliest historic canal system was 
the series of five canals by which 
the great blocks of granite needed for 
pyramids and other monuments were 
carried past the first Nile cataract. 
Uni, a powerful noble, known as the 
"Keeper of the Door of the South", 
was the governor of this region under 
whose administration the canal sys- 
tem was completed, and so effective 
and vigorous was his administration 
that he boasted of his success in pre- 
serving its passage against hostile 
marauders with "only one war ship". 
It was from the quarries of Hamma- 
mat, in the eastern desert, three days' 
journey from the Nile, that some of 
the choicest and hugest stones were 
brought to erect temples or some 
royal sarcophagus upon the Egyptian 
sands. We still have the glowing 
account of the scribe who reported 
the successful transportation of one 
of these huge blocks, eight cubits 
long, four broad and two high. Three 
thousand men were required for the 
task, and for subsistence in the quar- 
ries and desert each man was daily 
allowed two jars of water and 20 
small loaves of bread, such as we 
call biscuit or crackers. On this fare 
the workmen quarried the stone, 
dragged it to the river on rollers, 
loaded it on a raft and floated it to 
its destination. Its safe arrival was 
celebrated by a sacrifice of calves and 
gazelles to the protecting deity of the 
desert, and the record closes : "Never 
had such a block been transported 
into that country since the time of 
the god; the soldiers also suffered no 
loss ; not a man perished ; not one 
donkey's back was broken ; not one 
artisan was killed." 

But the greatness of Egypt's early 



engineers is most widely known 
through the pyramids, which the an- 
cients placed first among the seven 
wonders of the world and which still 
fascinate and astonish travelers. Of 
these gigantic structures, once 70 in 
number, it is only the Great Pyramid 
of Khufu (or Cheops, as the Greeks 
called him), erected nearly 3,000 years 
before Christ, that can be mentioned 
in the limits of our space. It was 
described by Herodotus, "the father 
of history," and from his age to our 
own it has been not only the magnet 
to attract the traveler but the bewild- 
ering source of endless speculation 
and wild theories on the part of the 
lovers of the mysterious and occult. 
Ancient grave robbers plundered its 
recesses, and modern critics of "prac- 
tical" bent have severely criticized its 
uselessness, the vanity of its builder, 
and the oppression of its unpaid labor- 
ers, forgetful of the great fact that 
it stands as the monument which 
marks the great change from prehis- 
toric chaos and local clashings to the 
earliest organization of a far-reaching 
and comprehensive government. Surely 
so magnificent a stride of progress 
deserves a monument huge as this great 
pyramid. 

It was originally 481 feet high, 50 
feet higher than the dome of St. 
Peter's, at Rome, and practically of the 
same height as the Equitable building, 
in New York City. Its base measures 
755 feet square and covers 13 acres ; 
its estimated weight is 6,848,000 
tons, and its more than 2,000,000 
blocks of stone average 40 cubic feet 
in size. The building material is lime- 
stone, except that of the main sepul- 
chral chamber, which is granite, and it 
was once surrounded by a wide pave- 
ment of limestone. Its eastern front 
included a temple for royal burial rites 
and adoration, and presumably a cause- 
way lined with sphinxes and monoliths 
extended from the royal residence to 
this temple. The entrance into the 
pyramid was on the north face and 
led up to a series of five chambers, 
whose vacant space was so designed 
as to help relieve the roof of the 



12 



The Conquerors 




Climbing the Pyramid 

Present aspect of the pyramid. Visitors are able to climb to the summit by the aid of two able- 
bodied natives, who are skilled not only in helping the tourist but in the demand for bak-shish as a 
reward for their arduous labor. 



The Peacefulness and Greatness of the Early Engineer 



13 



burial chamber from the mass of the 
superincumbent masonry. The fifth 
chamber is roofed with blocks bear- 
ing obliquely against one another, on 
the principle of the arch, which in its 
true form was used in Egypt as early 
as 3,000 B. C. 

Of these five chambers the two 
known as the King's and the Queen's 
were the center and object of the 
entire structure, and .air shafts care- 
fully designed secured ventilation 



were constructed, and the real passage 
was closed by plug blocks and port- 
cullises of granite; and the final act 
was to cover the entire pyramid with 
a smoothed and well-fitting case of 
limestone which nowhere betrayed the 
entrance. Except at the very top this 
casing has all been removed as plunder 
by later builders, and the carefully 
protected secret vaults were ages ago 
robbed of all the royal insignia which 
had been deposited in accordance 










The Pyramid of Cheops 

Remnants of the smooth limestone casing which once covered the entire pyramid may be seen at 
the top of the pyramid. This casing was put on after the burials and was the final sealing up of the 
great tomb. 



prior to the final enclosing of the 
royal bodies in a resting place designed 
to be eternal. But even this mightiest 
of the monarchs of his age anticipated 
the coming of grave robbers, and to 
mislead and thwart their efforts de- 
ceptive passages and false openings 



with ancient burial customs beside the 
mummies of the owners. 

No problem concerning these huge 
burial mounds is more interesting than 
that of their construction in an 
age destitute of hoisting machinery. 
Eighteen centuries ago Pliny visited 



14 



The Conquerors 



these structures and wrote, "The most 
difficult problem is to know how the 
materials could possibly be carried to 
so vast a height." He mentioned the 
theory of his age that "vast mounds of 
nitre and salt" were heaped up in 
succeeding layers against the pyramid 
as it rose tier upon tier to the very 
summit and when all was completed 
this embankment was washed away 
("melted" is his term) by turning 
running water against or beneath it. 
Diodorus also heard this tale but dis- 
missed it with a contemptuous "this 



hundred thousand workmen (unpaid 
laborers working under the slave 
driver's lash) spent ten years in quar- 
rying and transporting these stones 
before actual building was begun, and 
that ten years more of labor was neces- 
sary for construction. If allowance 
is made for the natural failures of 
20 years, it seems not improbable that 
the total number of workmen engaged 
may have reached 360,000, the number 
given by both Pliny and Diodorus. 
Herodotus tells us that a royal record 
read to him by his guide showed that 




IxxER Passages, Pyramid of Cheops 

This outline of the interior passages of the great pyramid is from a drawing made by Ex-President 
Staley, of Case School of Applied Science who made a careful study of the architecture of this 
pyramid during a winter spent in Egypt. It illustrates the misleading passages as well as the situation 
of the sepulchral chambers which were closed after the burial of the Pharaoh and his queen. 



is not the truth of the matter". Five 
hundred years before even these an- 
cient waiters, Herodotus visited these 
tombs, which were then only 2500 
years old, and was told by his guides 
that the stones were brought from 
Arabia (which probably meant the 
region about ]\Iount Sinai), and that a 



the treasury expended 1500 talents 
for mustard, onions and garlic to feed 
these laborers. As the Egyptians had 
no coined money, made all exchanges 
by barter and paid all taxes in kind, 
the talents mentioned are, of course, 
terms of weight rather than of value, 
translated from Eg}^ptian into Greek. 



The Peacefulness and Greatness of the Early Engineer 



15 



He also speaks of devices used in 
elevating the stones but gives no hint 
as to what these devices were, and 
modern ingenuity of speculation can 
suggest no other device for quarrying 
such stones than drilling holes into 
which wooden wedges were driven 
and then wetted until their swelling 
rent the rocks asunder, no other de- 
vice for transportation to the river 
than dragging upon huge rollers, and 
no other device for hoisting than 
dragging up inclined planes of earth 
and stone, all of which had finally to 
be removed from the structure. At 
least these are the explanations which 
enable us to comprehend the difficulties 



weighing many tons are set together 
with seams of considerable length 
showing a joint of one ten-thousandth 
of an inch and involving edges and 
surfaces equal to optician's work of 
the present day but on a scale of 
acres instead of feet or yards of 
material". 

From Herodotus to Petrie is nearly 
25 centuries and from Herodotus 
back to Khufu or Cheops is 25 cen- 
turies more. Yet in all these 5,000 
years is there any more wisdom than 
is expressed by Diodorus, in the age 
of the Caesars, when he wrote of the 
builders (engineers) of these pyramids : 
''Much more are they to be admired 






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Transport of a Winged Bull. (From Layard's Momuncnts of Nineveh.) 

This copy of a tablet from the ancient Assyrian monuments is of special interest not only as 
illustrating the primitive methods of transportation but also as revealing the estimate of its success 
felt by the ancients in that they deemed it worthy of being immortalized in stone. 



that the earliest pioneers of the engi- 
neering science had to overcome. 
When we ask the measure of their 
success we have the testimony of 
Petrie, the most painstaking of the mod- 
ern students of the pyramids, that 
"in spite of an inequality of the 
ground sufficient to prevent direct 
measurements from corner to corner, 
the average error is less than a ten- 
thousandth of the side in equality, in 
squareness and in level", and that "the 
masonry finish is so fine that blocks 



than the kings themselves, for they per- 
formed all by their own ingenuity, 
while the kings did nothing but by the 
wealth handed to them by descent from 
their predecessors and by the toil and 
labor of others," and by the Preacher 
in Jerusalem : "There was a little 
city and few men within it ; and there 
came a great king against it and 
besieged it and built great bulwarks 
against it. Now there was found in 
it a poor wise man and he by his 
wisdom delivered the city. Yet no 
man remembered that same poor man." 



Making Homes in the Desert 

By F. H. Newell=^ 



Civilization was first developed in 
irrigated countries, and the monuments 
left by the irrigation engineer are 
among the oldest records of human 
activity. The canals and reservoirs 
of JNIesopotamia, Egypt, and India, far 
antedate the more striking aqueducts 
of the Greeks and Romans, and their 
magnitude and the skill used in their 
construction testify to a degree of 
advancement which is difficult for us 
to conceive. Some of the irrigation 



undoubtedly contributed to growth in 
other arts and sciences. 

Many of these early hydraulic works 
have continued in use through the 
thousands of years since they were 
built ; others dropped into neglect after 
the invasion of the land by enemies. 
]Many of them have from time to time 
been restored, and some of the great 
problems confronting modern engi- 
neers are connected with the rehabili- 
tation of works laid out by engineers 




Fig. 1 — The Desert 

Typical of millions of acres of land belonging to the United States, at present valueless but 
capable of producing large crops if water can be applied to it. Salt River Valley, Arizona. 



works are so large that they have been 
mistaken for natural channels, but 
careful study by archeologists, aided 
by the engineer, is bringing out the 
fact that men planned and built these 
waterways. "Necessity was the mother 
of invention" then as now, and the 
skill acquired in planning these works 



*Urbana, 111., Chief Engineer, U. S. Reclama- 
tion Service, 1902-07, Director 1907-14, then Con- 
sulting Engineer. 



acting under the orders of Alexander 
the Great or other empire builders. 
In the United States there has been 
a remarkable growth in the science 
and art of irrigation within the last 
few decades. The Spanish conquerors 
coming from an arid region where 
irrigation had been estabhshed by the 
Romans and by the Moors, found in 
Mexico and in Central and South 
America large irrigation and drainage 



16 



Making Homes in the Desert 



17 




18 



The Conquerors 



works which were similar in many 
respects to those to which they had 
been accustomed, and which they and 
their descendants continued to use. 
Thus in the southwestern part of the 
United States, in Mexico and in coun- 
tries farther south, we find canals 
built by the Indians during prehistoric 
times still supplying water to agri- 
cultural lands. 

Farther north, most of the early 
settlers came from the humid regions 



whose fertile soils crops could not be 
obtained without artificial application 
of water. The ingenious Yankees, 
many of them natural engineers, quick- 
ly adapted themselves to the conditions 
and more or less unconsciously copied 
the irrigation canals that had been 
built farther south by the natives and 
by the Spanish conquerors or mission- 
aries. 

At a little later date, following the 
urgent advice of Horace Greeley, "Go 




Fig. 3 — Roosevelt Reservoir, Arizona 

One of the large dams built by the U. S. Reclamation Service for storing floods in order to use 
the water for reclaiming the desert as illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2. 



of Europe and naturally made their 
settlements in similar humid areas on 
the sea shore. But they gradually 
pushed westward across the Missis- 
sippi Valley and out upon the High 
Plains, where the annual rainfall was 
found to decrease steadily from east 
to west. Finally the Mormons, under 
the leadership of Brigham Young, set- 
tled in the Salt Lake Valley, from 



west, young man," a small body of 
colonists built irrigation works near 
the town which they named Greeley ; 
about the same time, far to the west, 
in California, the gold miners began 
to utiHze some of their hydraulic 
works to employ water for growing 
crops, obtaining surer reward in the 
potatoes and other vegetables raised 



Making Homes in the Desert 



19 




20 



The Conquerors 



from the ground than from the gold 
washed out of it. 

On the vast plains and broad valleys 
of the western two-thirds of the 
United States the rainfall is insuffi- 
cient to mature valuable crops, though 
the soil is highly fertile and needs 
only an application of water to make 
it produce largely. Land such as 
shown in Fig. 1 has practically no 
value without water, and there is not 
enough water for all the land that 
needs it. The value of the land may, 
therefore, be said to depend upon 



cure or conserve the water control 
the destiny of vast areas. 

At first, in the characteristic Amer- 
ican "happy-go-lucky" way, this im- 
portant fact received little attention, 
and the few attempts to control the 
water were made by methods like those 
which had been practiced in the east. 
Soon, however, it was appreciated 
that conditions in arid regions differ 
radically from those in humid regions 
so that the old common law, applicable 
for example, in England and on the 
eastern seaboard — that every stream 




Fig. 5 — A Distributing Canal in the Salt River Valley, Arizona 

One of many conducting water which has been stored in the Roosevelt Reservoir, diverted by the 
Granite Reef Dam to the main canals and from these into the smaller canals or laterals, subdividing 
to bring water to about 5,000 farms. 



water. With water crops may be 
raised ; without it the land is useless. 
Any man who can control the water 
is practically the "lord of creation" 
and can put his own price on it, for 
in this region neither man nor beast 
can procure food or long exist with- 
out water. This condition prevails 
throughout the greater part of at least 
15 of the western states, so that the 
engineer and financier who can pro- 



should be left undisturbed as to quan- 
tity and quality of water — could not 
be followed ; in the arid region 
the so-called riparian rights must be 
abrogated. The common needs of the 
people in the dry country require that 
the w^ater be taken from the streams, 
put upon the land, and used in raising 
crops, even if the stream channels 
thereby become permanently dry. Be- 
fore this fact was recognized many 



Making Homes in the Desert 



21 




Fig, 6 — Laguna Dam, Arizona-California 

Twenty miles above Yuma ; 4,780 feet long, raising the Colorado river and forcing the water to 
flow out into the irrigation canals on each side, illustrating the types of work in rivers of this character. 



ARIZONA 




\^ ^loo-i-^^jj-i 



14' Inside DIameler 



965 



CALIFORNIA 
Canal 



\ 

Fig. 7 — Yuma Reclamation Project, Colorado River Siphon 

Diagram of siphon under Colorado River to bring water from the California side to the vicinity 
of Yuma, Ariz. 



22 



The Conquerors 



so-called vested rights were allowed 
to attach to the water of the stream. 
In the newer states, however, such 
rights have been abrogated and the 
doctrine of appropriation adopted, viz., 
the man who took the water first 
in time was first in right and that 
beneficial use is the basis, the measure, 
and the limit of the right. 

This fact, that water is the basis 
of value and that the streams can 
and should be utilized on the land, 



enterprises requiring greater skill in 
designing dams, gates, flumes and 
other structures. Finally, when private 
enterprises apparently had reached 
their limit, the United States, the 
great landowner, possessing title to 
three-fourths or nine-tenths of the 
area of many of the states, stepped in. 
By the Act of June 17, 1902, Con- 
gress devoted the proceeds of the 
disposal of public lands to the build- 
ing of reservoirs for holding flood 




Fig. 8 — Looking Down Into One of the Caissons for the Colorado River Tunnel 

The workmen are about 100 feet below the surface of the ground. 



has laid the foundation for a great 
superstructure of engineering achieve- 
ment. At first the enterprises at- 
tempted were relatively small. A few 
farmers joined together, hired a sur- 
veyor to lay out the irrigation ditch, 
and built it by their own labor. As 
communities grew in wealth, larger 
organizations were formed and more 
difficult enterprises were attempted — 



waters and canals for distributing 
these waters to vast tracts of arid 
lands. This work was undertaken by 
what is known as the Reclamation 
Service, an outgrowth of the United 
States Geological Survey, which had 
made the original surveys and exam- 
inations and prepared plans for many 
of the larger works. Under the 
Reclamation Service more than $100,- 



Making Homes in the Desert 



23 



000,000 has been expended and many 
notable structures have been built, 
adequate to provide water for more 
than 3,000,000 acres of dry land. 
Although these works have not been 
completed or put to full use, the 
gross value of the crops produced 
under them in 1916 was nearly $20,- 
000,000. Each year has shown a 
steady increase in area of land culti- 
vated; as the settlers on these lands 
acquire skill and capital they will be 
able to bring the land to a more 
complete degree of cultivation. 



of vision without being visionary ; he 
must look far ahead into the future 
and consider not merely the conditions 
that surround him but the possibili- 
ties of developing and utilizing hydro- 
electric power, which may be a proper 
side product of the irrigation works; 
he must consider transportation lines, 
the growth of railroads and of possi- 
ble industries, and while laying out 
a project with proper regard to funds 
available, must so prepare his plans 
that the growth of the country will 
not be hampered, but, on the contrary, 




Fig. 9 — Tunnel Under the Colorado River 

Connects two vertical shafts as shown in Fig. 7, to form a so-called "inverted siphon" 



In all this work the engineer is the 
moving spirit. To him the public 
looks to discover the possibihties, to 
explore and map the mountain area 
from which the water comes, and to 
prepare plans of the works to restrain 
this water and to deliver it when 
necessary to lower lying, dry but fer- 
tile areas. In this work the engineer 
must justify his title of the "ingen- 
ious man". He must have breadth 



that new comers will be able to utihze 
every available resource. 

In this work the engineer, as the 
prime mover, must call to his aid 
the agricultural expert and other pro- 
fessional men. The meteorologist mu§t 
be consulted with reference to climatic 
conditions and fluctuations of rainfall. 
The advice of the geologist must be 
sought with reference to foundations 
for the dams. The chemist and biolo- 



24 



The Conquerors 




Making Homes in the Desert 



25 



gist may be needed in considering the 
quantity and quality of water to be 
used not only for agriculture, but for 
domestic and municipal supply, for 
manufacturing and for other uses. 
In fact, there is hardly a department 
of science that is not called upon 
sooner or later in connection with the 
work. 

As soon as the plans have been 
completed and construction has been 
begun the engineer, in conjunction 
with the contractor, is called upon to 
consider the problems of labor, of 



during this enforced idleness in the 
construction camps which are usually 
remote from centers of civilization. 

When the works are built there 
arise problems of another class, requir- 
ing engineering skill and diplomacy. 
The irrigation works must be main- 
tained and operated, and water must 
be apportioned to each farm as needed 
and shut off when not beneficially 
used. The irrigation manager is thus 
brought into intimate contact with 
hundreds or thousands of farmers. 
He is held responsible for the prompt 




Fig. 11-A Portion of the Reclaimed Land in the Vicinity of Yuma, Arizona 

Shows intensive cultivation of an area which otherwise would be useless. 



''hiring and firing", of sanitation of 
camps, of hospital facihties, and of 
suitable recreation or amusement for 
the men on the work who, under 
federal law, can be employed only 
eight hours each day and have left 
another eight hours for recreation and 
eight hours for sleep. To maintain 
an efBcient force the engineer in 
charge must see to it that these eight 
hours of recreation are suitably 
employed, and that the members of the 
organization do not become dissipated 



delivery of water, and at times of 
severe drought his discretion must 
determine the success or failure of 
hundreds of families. A mistake on 
his part or failure to foresee condi- 
tions may reduce crop production 
almost to the starvation point, or his 
wise management may increase the 
yield by tens of thousands of dollars. 
Among these works of the govern- 
ment perhaps the one most generally 
known is the Roosevelt dam on Salt 
River in Arizona (Fig. 3), named 



26 



The Conquerors 




Fig. 12 — A Portion of the Canyon of Gunnison River, Colorado 

The cliffs are nearly 2,000 feet high. The water from this river is being taken out by a tunnel 
beneath the bed of the stream and extending six miles to the Uncompahgre Valley. 



Making Homes in the Desert 



27 




Fig. 13— a Portion of the Gunnison Tunnel When Under Construction, 
Showing the Timber Lining 
This has been embedded in concrete, making a smooth conduit. 



28 



The Conquerors 




Fig. 14. A Portion of the Cement Lined Canal Leading from the Gunnison Tunnel 

The tunnel takes water to the Uncompahgre Valley. 




Fig. 15. A Series of Drops on the Canal Shown in Fig. 14 



Making Homes in the Desert 



29 



after ex-President Theodore Roose- 
velt, through whose interest in the 
development of the country and ener- 
getic activity the passage of the 
Reclamation Act became possible. This 
dam is built of rubble masonry in 
arched form, although it has a gravity 
section. It is 280 feet high and 1,125 
long on the crest. The masonry has 



Reef dam, a rubble concrete weir 
which may be safely overtopped by 
occasional floods, as shown in the 
picture (Fig. 4). The maximum 
height of this dam is 38 feet and its 
length is 1,000 feet. Canals lead 
from each side of the dam, dividing 
and subdividing into laterals, as shown 
in Fig. 5, and these canals continue 




Fig. 16 — A Portion of Arrowrock Dam, Idaho, — the Highest in the World 

The top is 350 feet above bed rock. Water is used on desert lands near Boise, Idaho. 



a volume of 342,000 cubic yards. 
The reservoir created by it is about 
20 miles long, covers nearly 17,003 
acres and has a capacity of 1,367,000 
acre-feet — that is, the water held by 
it would cover that number of acres 
to a depth of 1 foot. The stored 
water is permitted to flow down the 
river and is diverted at the Granite 



to subdivide into smaller canals, which 
take water to about 5,000 farms. 

In contrast with the high Roose- 
velt dam is the less picturesque La- 
guna dam, shown in Fig. 6, on the 
Colorado River, which separates Cali- 
fornia from Arizona. This dam is of 
the Indian weir type, and is made 
of concrete and rock fill. Its maxi- 



30 



The Conquerors 



mum height is 40 feet and its 
length is 4,780 feet, and its vol- 
ume 442,000 cubic yards. As at 
the Granite Reef weir, canals lead 
out of each side, the larger being 
on the California side, as shown in 
the foreground of Fig. 6. An inter- 
esting feature of this canal is due to 
the necessity of bringing it back across 



shafts is shown in Fig. 8 — a view 
looking directly down on men working 
nearly 100 feet below the surface, far 
beneath the level of the Colorado 
River. The caissons of these two 
shafts are nearly 1,000 feet apart and 
are connected by the tunnel, a view 
of which, taken shortly before com- 
pletion and before the water was 




Fig. 17 — A Portion of the Reclaimed Desert Area Near Boise, Idaho 

Digging and sacking potatoes on a portion of the reclaimed desert area near Boise. 



the river in the vicinity of Yuma, 
Ariz. To do this the water is dropped 
vertically into a shaft nearly 100 feet 
deep (see Fig. 7) and is then carried 
horizontally in a tunnel to an upright 
shaft on the Arizona side. The 
method of excavating these vertical 



turned in, is shown in Fig. 9. The 
main canal, which leads from Laguna 
dam to this so-called "inverted" 
siphon under the Colorado River, is 
shown in Fig. 10, the photograph 
having been taken just after comple- 
tion but before water was turned in. 



Making Homes in the Desert 



31 




32 



The Coxouerors 



This main canal has a capacity at the 
head of 1,700 cubic feet a second 
and a length of 12 miles. Some of the 
lands reclaimed by water from these 
works are shown in Fig. 11, which 
illustrates the intensive cultivation 
of otherwise worthless sandy areas. 
Here, where the sun shines nearly 
everv dav in the vear and frosts are 



almost vertical walls nearly 2,000 feet 
high. Near this point a tunnel, start- 
ing beneath the level of the water, 
takes out the entire ordinary flow 
of the stream and carries it almost 
horizontally to the edge of Uncom- 
pahgre \'alley. This tunnel is 30,645 
feet long — or about 6 miles. In its 
incomplete form a part of it is shown 




Fig. 19 — Whalex Diversion Dam axd Head Works ox North Platte River ix Easterx 

WvOillXG 

The canals head on each side of the river taking water into western Nebraska. 



almost unknown, crop follows crop in 
rapid succession with hardly a break. 
Another notable work is seen in 
the tunnel that takes the water of 
Gunnison River, in Colorado, to the 
arid Uncompahgre Valley. The river, 
as shown in Fig. 12, flows between 



in Fig. 13. The rock was held in 
place by heavy timbers, which have 
been covered by a thick wall of 
concrete that makes a smooth lining 
and that will support the weight of 
the overlying mass when the timbers 
decav. The water is conducted from 



Making Homes in the Desert 



33 



the tunnel around the south side of 
Uncompahgre Valley, as shown in 
Fig. 14, by a canal in which the water 
descends by a number of drops. A 
view of these drops is shown in Fig. 
15, which illustrates the type of heavy 
work necessary to handle a large vol- 
ume of water in a country of soft 
rocks. 

The Arrowrock dam on Boise River 



height of the dam, as its area is only 
2,860 acres and its capacity 244,000 
acre-feet. Water passes through open- 
ings in the dam, as shown by the 
view (Fig. 16). The stored supply 
is used on desert land near Boise, 
Idaho, shown in Fig. 17, where a crop 
of potatoes is being dug. 

Other similar storage dams are the 
Pathfinder in central Wyoming, the 




Fig. 20 — Sun River Diversion Dam, Montana 

This dam is built above a narrow gorge. 



in Idaho, known as the highest dam 
in the world, illustrated in Fig. 16, 
is somewhat similar to the Roosevelt 
dam, being arched in form, with a 
gravity section. It is 350 feet high 
and 1,100 feet long at the crest, and 
contains 585,000 cubic yards of con- 
crete. The reservoir formed is rela- 
tively small if compared with the 



Lahontan in Nevada, the Belle Fourche 
in South Dakota, the Strawberry in 
Utah, and the Shoshone in Wyoming, 
detailed descriptions of which are 
given in the annual reports of the 
Reclamation Service. The latest of 
these storage dams completed is on 
the Rio Grande, in New Mexico — 
the Elephant Butte dam, 300 feet 



34 



The Conquerors 




Fig. 21 — Utilizing Water ix Building a Dam 



Making Homes in the Desert 



35 



high and 1,250 feet long, a straight 
structure built of concrete with grav- 
ity section. The reservoir created by 
this dam has a capacity of 2,628,000 
acre-feet, and is one of the largest 
artificial reservoirs yet made. A view 
of the nearly completed dam is shown 
in Fig. 18. 

Among diversion dams, besides those 
already described, may be mentioned 
those on Yellowstone River and Milk 
River in Montana, on Truckee River 



rough country to the open canals 
beyond. 

Among the interesting devices em- 
ployed by irrigation engineers is the 
hydraulic giant or nozzle, which 
throws a stream of water against an 
earth bank and tears it down. This 
machine was originally utilized for 
recovering the gold in the auriferous 
gravels of Cahfornia, the debris then 
being wasted wherever land could 
be found for it. For the present pur- 




FiG. 22 — A Reclaimed Desert 

The deserts of western Nebraska are made fertile by water stored and diverted from the Truckee 
and Carson rivers. 



in Nevada, and on the North Platte 
in Wyoming (shown in Fig. 19). The 
dam on the North Platte is 29 feet 
high and 300 feet long, and diverts 
water to canals on the north and 
south sides. A diversion dam serving 
a similar purpose (shown in Fig. 20) 
on Sun River, Montana, occupies a 
very picturesque site above a deep 
gorge. It forces the water into a 
tunnel that conducts it through the 



pose, however, the debris is conducted 
out in flumes, as shown in Fig. 21, so 
arranged as to deposit the gravel, sand 
and mud in symmetrical form and 
build a dam across the outlet of the 
valley. 

Many volumes would be required to 
describe adequately all the engineer- 
ing works built for irrigation. The 
structures mentioned are those recently 
completed by the Government, as 



2>6 



The Conquerors 



these, from their magnitude and from 
the fact that they have been built by 
pubhc funds, are of most general 
interest. Other large works have been 
undertaken by private enterprise and 
no doubt the irrigation districts and 
similar semi-public corporations will 
undertake new works or enlarge those 
already built, procuring for this pur- 
pose funds raised by taxation or by 
bond issues on the lands already 
partly supphed with water. 

It should be noted that the money 
for the works built by the Reclama- 
tion Service is advanced from the 
proceeds of the sales of pubHc lands 
and that the cost is to be repaid by 
the owners of lands benefited in 20 
annual installments, without profit and 
without interest. In other words, the 
settlers on the lands pay what is 
equivalent to 5 per cent interest on the 
cost of the water brought to their 
lands and at the end of 20 years the 
debt is cancelled. Such a financial 



arrangement is, of course, practicable 
only with the Government, which can 
aft'ord to lose the interest on its in- 
vestment because it gains more than 
an equivalent amount in the increased 
prosperity of the country through the 
creation of new productive areas and 
industries. 

Irrigation works and the closely 
related drainage operations have for 
their prime object the providing of 
homes. The engineer therefore not 
only has the stimulus of creation but 
the satisfaction of seeing his dreams 
come true, in the direct upbuilding 
of humanity. When he looks across 
the barren desert, with its scanty 
vegetation and scattered sand dunes, 
he can picture and hope to realize 
such a view as is shown in Fig. 22 — 
a peaceful canal stretching far out 
across the desert, bringing life-giving 
water and making possible the many 
prosperous farms and comfortable 
homes that dot the landscape. 



Public Water Supply 

By George W. Fuller* 



To the average citizen a public water 
supply means convenient arrangements 
in his house, particularly the bath 
room, where by turning a faucet or 
pushing a button water is obtained 
for his personal comfort and con- 
venience. He pays water bills from 
time to time and he knows in a general 
way that water is used for putting 
out fires. Yet as most of the structural 
equipment of waterworks is either un- 
derground or located at isolated sites 
the average citizen is not intimately 
acquainted with specific details of con- 
struction or operation. It is therefore 
interesting to trace briefly how public 
water supplies have been developed 
and how real service is afforded by 
them. Few people arc aware that 
more than $1,100,000,000 is now in- 
vested in the pubhc waterworks of this 
country in centers of 30,000 or more 
inhabitants, or that many centers of 
2,500 or more inhabitants are sup- 
plied with water at a cost per cap- 
ita materially exceeding the cost per 
capita in larger cities. In rural com- 
munities throughout the world the in- 
dividual householder, his methods vary- 
ing in different countries, has relied 
on his own ingenuity for his water 
supply. The old-fashioned well-sweep 
of the early days in America has its 
parallel in devices like the shadoof of 
the Nile districts of Egypt, shown in 
Fig. 1, from "Water Supply and Irri- 
gation" paper, No. 87. 

The Romans clearly recognized the 
convenience and benefit of a public 
water supply with increasing concen- 
tration of population and their opinion 
of the value of pure mountain water 
is picturesquely shown by the Roman 
aqueducts, a view of one of which, 
nearly 1,900 years old, is shown in 
Fig. 2. 

Modern aqueducts of various kinds 
and sizes are to be found in the Unit- 

* Consulting Hydraulic Engineer, New York, 
N. Y. 



ed States. The Catskill aqueduct for 
conveying water from the Catskill 
mountains to New York City is a 
structure involving an expenditure of 
about $200,000,000 and a far greater 
variety of complex engineering prob- 
lems than the Panama Canal and many 
other enterprises of world-wide re- 
nown. Fig. 3 (courtesy of New York 
Board of Water Supply) shows a sec- 
tion of Hudson River near West Point 
where the tunnel of the Catskill aque- 
duct crosses about 1,100 feet below the 
surface of the river. Examination of 
the picture will show how explora- 
tions were made by borings with the 
diamond drill to ascertain the distance 
beneath the bed of the river it was 
necessary to sink shafts in order to 
enter solid rock that would withstand 
the enormous pressure of the water. 

Fig. 4 (courtesy of New York 
Board of Water Supply) shows a pond 
for aerating the water after it has 
been collected in Ashokan Reservoir. 
Aeration is used to saturate the water 
with oxygen after driving out any 
objectionable gases that may be present 
after the water has been stored for 
long periods in the impounding reser- 
voir. In view of the great cost of 
these structures, even without the con- 
tinual expense of operation and main- 
tenance it is needless to point out that, 
though water under some conditions 
may be as free as air, yet it is 
not when delivered under pressure 
through expensive and extensive sys- 
tems of pipe to the householder. As 
water supplies have been improved in 
quahty it has been found necessary 
to conserve them and to add the ex- 
pense of pumping and filtration. 

Fig. 5, from Fire and Water Engi- 
neering, graphically demonstrates the 
curtailing of waste of public water 
during the past 15 years by the intro- 
duction of meters in about 40 repre- 
sentative cities in the United States. 



37 



38 



The Conquerors 




Fig. 1. Shadoof 



Public Water Supply 



39 



There is still room for improvement 
without affecting in any way the health 
or comfort of the householder, who 
has real use for an average of not 
more than 50 gallons of water per 
capita per day for his family. 

Fig. 6, from Clarksburg, W. Va., 
Water Works Report, shows the in- 
fluence of leaky faucets on the supply 
and it illustrates a source of great 
anxiety during dry-weather periods to 
those in charge of public water sup- 
plies for districts in which very small 
rivers and natural lakes are utilized 



day to the average American citizen. 
This outlay covers not only use of 
water in the household, but it also 
covers in a moderate way protection 
of property from losses by fire. Fig. 
7 shows a sketch prepared by Albert 
Blauvelt (Am. W. W. Assn.) illus- 
trating the manner in which a fire 
might sweep through certain classes 
of property and be stopped when it 
comes to property fully protected by 
modern devices. 

The character of the building, the 
use of fire sprinklers, and other fac- 




FiG. 2 — Aqueduct of Claudius, Near Rome, Built 50 A. D. 



and in which artificial lakes must be 
built to conserve the water of rainy 
periods for use during dry weather. 
The figures in this illustration show 
that high rates charged by small cities 
may be caused in great part by neglect 
of the householder to repair immedi- 
ately all leaky fixtures. The use of 
meters has effected a reduction of 
waste largely by prompting the house- 
holder to procure the services of a 
plumber as soon as needed. 

The cost of water under pressure 
is less than one cent per capita per 



tors are to be considered, but it is 
desired forcibly to set forth the fact 
that a good public water supply means 
a great saving to citizens through a 
reduction in fire-insurance rates com- 
pared with those prevailing in com- 
munities having unreHable water ser- 
vice in point of continuity, efficient 
pressure, etc. 

Figs. 8 and 9 (courtesy of New York 
Board of Water Supply), pictorial sec- 
tions of New York City, show not only 
the new pressure tunnel but also the 
height to which the Catskill and Cro- 



40 



The Conquerors 




Public Water Supply 



41 




42 



The Conquerors 




Have you ever realized the ccst of'allowing your 
spigot to leak or leaving it open after using the 
water? 

Do you realize that If you do these things it 
ccets the city in the aggregate THOUSANDS OF 
DOLLARS A YEAR? 



Water Just Dropping. 

15 gallons per day. 
105 gallons per week. 
5,460 gallons per year. 

Cost per day $ .00375 

Cost per week 02625 

Cost per year. ... 



Water Leaking Through 

1.32 of an Inch Apera- 

ture. 

264 gallons per day. 

1,848 gallons per week. 

96,096 gallons per year. 



Cost per day. 
Cost per week 
Cost per year. 



? .066 

,462 

24.024 




Water Leaking Through 

One-sixteenth of an 

Inch Aperature. 

835 gallons per day. 
5,845 gallons per week. 
303, 940" gallons per year. 



Cost per day.. . 
Cost per week. 
Cost per year. 



^ .20875 
1.46125 
75.985 



Fig. 6-A 



Public Water Supply 



43 




You may think the water dripping in your owil 
individual spigot is too trifling to notice, and not 
Avcrth the effort to turn it off or stop the leak, as 
the case may be, but just multiply your own case 
by 13,000 the number of fixtures in the city, and 
then you will stand aghast at the result. 

SAVE THE WATER, 



Water Leaking Tliroiigh 

One-eighth of an Inch 

Aperature. 

2,785 gallons per day. 
19,516 gallons per week. 
1.014,832 gallons per year. 

Cost per day $ .697 

Cost, per week. . . . 4.879 
Cost per year.. .. 253.708 




Water Leaking Through 

One-fourth of an Inch 

Aperature. 

9,504 gallons per day. 
66,528 gallons per week. 
3,459,456 gallons per year. 

Cost per day $ 2.376 

Cost per week 16 632 

Cost per year..... 864.864 



Water Turned On Full. 

25,200 gallons per day. 

176.400 gallons per week 

9,172,800 gallons per year. 



Cost per day. . 
Cost per week 
Cost per year. 



^ 6.30 

44.10 

2,293.20 



Fig. 6-B 



44 



The Coxquerors 



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1300 ISO/ 'OS V3 '04 '05 '06 '07 'OS '09 'fO 7/ '/S 'f3 f9f^ 

Fig. 5 

Water consumption decreases as number of meters used increases. 



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Fig. 7 



Central district (four or more stories) all protected at windows or by internal piping. A hot 
blast fire might bore in for one or two blocks as per line A B, 



Public Water Supply 



45 




Fig. 



Illustrating Pressure in New York Water Mains 



ton waters will rise above street level 
without pumping. 

Fig. 10 (From New York Board of 
Water Supply) shows in somewhat 
novel manner the depth below surface 
to which it was necessary to go with 
this tunnel in order to reach rock 
strong enough to withstand the enor- 
mous pressure. 

The quality of pubhc water supplies 
has very important bearing on the 
public health of consumers. Since the 
recognition of the germ theory of dis- 
ease some 30 years ago and the wide- 



spread movement in this country, be- 
ginning somewhat later, with respect 
to the installation of municipal filter 
plants, there has been a marked re- 
duction in water-borne diseases, of 
which typhoid fever is perhaps the 
chief. 

Charts recently published by the 
Prudential Life Insurance Co., indi- 
cating the decrease during the past 
15 years in typhoid fever within the 
registration area of the United States 
are shown in Fig. 11. 

Fig. 12 shows a striking reduction 



/ 




PRESSURE TUNNEL 



U>-c>.>~UaXX>-Vt 



f -rvTxrrrxrxTrr-rrrrxryyyTrrrrrrrrrrn^^ 



T^v"'''^T'\~.'"^rTxrvtrt.''-\'T''r7--t7'< " rr>-T>^- 



FiG. 9. Vertical Section of New York City 



46 



The Conquerors 




Fig. 10. Illustrating Depth of Water Tunnel 



Public Water Supply 



47 



UNITED STATES REGfSTRAT/ON A/^EA. 

f^aM per /00,ooo Popt/Jah'on. ^^ 


30 
Zo 

lo 

o 

n 


V 


^ 


























30 
20 












^ 


^ 




^ 




























s 






10 
/> 






























^oo'oi 'az 'o3 '04 'OS 'oh 'or 'O8 '09 '/O '// '/Z 'fj /9/4 1 



Fig. 11 — Typhoid Death Rate 



70- 
60 
SO 
^0 



Rofte per lOOnOOO Popufatfon. 



-70 
SO 
SO 
•40 



30 



-30 
-SO 



BO 
I0\ 



„ N.Y.Cit^ 






m. 



mi /885r 1890 1895^ I90Q 1905 1910 ISIST 

Decannia/ /fcrfe: S/. 9 fbr /88/-ia90i S9,0 /br /09I -/BOO; SQ^O for 1901- /9/0 



Fig. 12 — Typhoid Death Rate 



48 



The Conquerors 



through a period of 35 years in the 
average death rate from typhoid fever 
in cities. This chart differs from 
the preceding one in that it relates 
to cities proper rather than to the reg- 
istration areas. The data in Fig. 13, 
showing international statistics of 



Fortunately for those who live in 
large cities the public water supplies 
there have been improved more ma- 
terially as a general proposition than 
in villages, towns and small cities. 
Even now there is an annual sacrifice 
of 20,000 or more lives from typhoid 



/NTBRmriONAl. STAT/ST/CS, 

Rate par /oo,oo o Population. 

6pa/n. EG.7 \ I 

Itof/y. gg.5 :^ 

Hungary: £-f. J 3 

U. 5. ffeg.Area-ZI.I i 

Uraguay. /6.Z i 

Austriar. 13.5 i 

Ne\fYZeof/ctnd- ^..6.4 ZH 
NeiyyorkCity...6.l ZZl 
Eng/and, IVafes. .6.0 in 

SooHancf. 5".5" HI 

Prussia- S.O^i 

5mfzer/crr?c/-^.3f.8 Zl 
A/oriyay. j:<?n 



Fig. 13 — Typhoid Death Rate 



deaths from typhoid fever, indicate 
that there is still room for improve- 
ment in the United States when con- 
sideration is given to the entire regis- 
tration area compiled by the Census 
Bureau. 



fever, and impure water supphes form 
one of the prominent causative fac- 
tors, notwithstanding the knowledge 
available as to the efficiency of modern 
filtration and sterilization. 



Transportation 

By A. W. Johnston* 



The word transportation brings to 
the mind conceptions of the conveni- 
ences and luxuries made possible by 
the use of the steam locomotive, the 
marine engine, and the electric and 
other forms of motors that have be- 
come so common. We are likely to 
overlook the difference between the 
mode and the effect of transportation 
in our own time and in the ancient 
days, when the Phoenicians, pioneers in 
voyaging, ventured forth into the 
ocean wastes and made the circuit 
of the African continent. They were 
traders seeking to expand their mar- 
kets, not adventurers seeking to dis- 
cover new lands. Their commercial 
needs forced the development of trans- 
portation by water, the political as 
well as the geographical map estab- 
Hshing hmitations in land trade. 

The need of intercourse between 
peoples to convey information, or to 
distribute products of the soil or of 
the chase, has developed in every 
age very diverse types of transporta- 
tion. The swift runner — the percursor 
of the pony express of the nineteenth 
century and of the high-speed motor 
of the twentieth — represents the ex- 
treme attainment of early speedy 
transportation. The caravan, em- 
ployed from time immemorial in 
Asiatic Turkey and Persia, became 
a very general means of transporting 
persons and property, affording indeed, 
the sole means of land transportation 
over routes of travel between Asia 
and Europe. Slow-moving animals, 
especially the ox and the mule, have 
been employed down to the present 
day for transporting merchandise over 
a large part of the world. In north- 
ern China, almost the only form of 
vehicular transportation, except a few 
modern railways, is the two-wheeled 
cart, first used hundreds of years ago. 
In southern China the carriag^e is still 



'Assistant to President, N. Y. C. & St. L. R. R. 



the wheelbarrow, and man-propelled 
vehicles of various forms have been 
employed in Asiatic countries for hun- 
dreds of years. 

Before the steam engine was applied 
to land and ocean transportation in 
Europe, the means of travel were the 
stage coach, and the private carriage 
for passengers, and in a small way 
the tramway for moving some of the 
products of the mines, but after the 
marine engine was introduced river 
transportation was developed rapidly. 

America derived its types of land 
transportation from the European sys- 
tems. The English stage coach was 
transplanted to America and at the 
opening of the nineteenth century had 
become practically the only means by 
which most travelers could make over- 
land journeys. In certain regions, 
however, rivers or canals were used 
for parts of a journey. The discom- 
forts and weariness that inevitably 
accompanied stage-coach travel were 
borne without complaint, and the con- 
veniences it afforded were then regard- 
ed as the height of luxury in travel. 

Before the war of 1812 a line of 
swift-sailing packets was maintained 
between the North Atlantic states 
and the southern seaboard. This 
means of transportation was almost 
entirely wiped out by the war and in 
its place was inaugurated a method 
of land carriage in the form of the 
then well-known Conestoga wagon. 
Long trains of these wagons departed 
daily from various northern cities 
laden with the commodities needed 
in the south. A very high rate was 
charged for this service. Between 
Boston, Massachusetts, and Charles- 
ton, South Carolina, the freight rate 
was 40 cents a pound, or $800 a ton, 
approximately 11 cents a ton mile. 
For a considerable period during the 
war of 1812, 10 to 20 such wagons 
arrived at Charleston daily, from vari- 



49 



50 



The Conquerors 




^ c 
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am u 



c l> 

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"o « 



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- = .2 >. 



5 Cot 

fin >. 



in 



i K 



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C (DO 

o -- • 



PQi; 



o (u 

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3 .So; 

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Transportation 



51 



ous northern cities. The price paid 
for freight transportation, compared 
with present charges, was enormous. 
The interruption to sea travel by 
means of the swift saihng packets 
stimulated the development of im- 
proved stage coach routes between 
northern and southern points. The 
Atlantic Coast saihng packet never 
wholly recovered its prestige as a pas- 
senger carrier. Within a dozen years, 
however, small steamboats began run- 
ning on various bays and rivers in 
connection with the stage routes. This 



cover the width of the North Amer- 
ican continent between Newfoundland 
and the Golden Gate. In 1824 a rec- 
ord was made by Thurlow Weed of 
a trip between Albany and Rochester 
which consumed six days and seven 
nights, this slow progress being mainly 
due to bad roads. In 1831 there was 
inaugurated a fast mail stage service 
between Pittsburgh and Philadelphia 
which was scheduled in 2^ days, a 
great advance over previous facilities. 
In 1832 the time consumed between 
Boston and New York had been re- 




RocKY Mountain Stage Coach 

Courtesy of Wells Fargo Express Co. & Railroad Association Magazine. 



system of transportation continued 
until the railway supplanted the stage 
coach. 

Compared with the speed and cost 
of modern passenger transportation, 
the stage coach schedules and rates 
appear archaic. In 1826 four days 
were consumed between Boston and 
New York, one or two days additional 
to Philadelphia, and an additional three 
days to Washington, an aggregate of 
time sufficing at the present era to 



duced to 41 hours, and a passenger 
paid $11.00 for this service. 

In the South and West the prog- 
ress in stage coach travel is illustrated 
by the comparison of time consumed 
in carrying the President's message 
from Washington, D. C, to Little 
Rock, Arkansas, in 1819, and again 
in 1829. In the earlier year Presi- 
dent Monroe's message of December 
1, 1819, took 78 days for transmission, 
and in 1829 the message of President 



52 



The Conquerors 




^ JlT3 en 

^ E 2;x 

O 3 3 O 



-w o " 



= 'o bo 



1*- « C 



O n: o 
g IJ « 

.H >; w c 
o 



o <« 

^ C.« to 
^ o I, 4) V, 



o c-o ^ a 

C u o 4J '^ 
CO •- *' 



O O nl ?^ 
•J 2 E- O 



rt « 5 3_ 

y ft <- 10 i: 

'^^■o-S 



c a 



.- +; 4, 00 



Transportation 



53 



Jackson, of December 8th, consumed 
but 14 days. 

In 1820 a new stage route was es- 
tablished between Louisville and St. 
Louis via Vincennes, Indiana, there 
being a break in the journey at Vin- 
cennes each way, and the time con- 
sumed indicated an average travel 
speed of less than 2^ miles an hour. 
On this particular route the stage 
coach company established a basis 
for carrying charges which caused 
a considerable fluctuation in rates of 
fare paid by passengers. A traveler 
was arbitrarily considered to weigh 
100 pounds, or as the stage rule put it, 
"One hundred pounds weight will con- 
stitute a passenger and to be paid for 
accordingly, and a greater or less 
weight in proportion." So if a pas- 
senger weighed 150 pounds he was 
rated a passenger and a half and 
charged accordingly. These instances 
of stage coach travel illustrate a 
phase of the development of the early 
forms of transportation in new coun- 
tries. 

Railroads had their origin in the 
tramways or wagon ways which came 
into use about the middle of the six- 
teenth century in the mining districts 
of England around New Castle for 
the conveyance of coal from the pits 
to the River Tyne for shipment, and 
in a crude form were the forerunner 
of the modern surface tramway sys- 
tems. 

Late in the eighteenth century the 
necessity for an improved or more 
expeditious system of transportation 
for agricultural products into large 
centers of population became recognized 
and prior to the actual introduction 
of the steam locomotive for motive 
power on railways, there sprang into 
existence a system of transportation 
by which private conveyors were per- 
mitted to use the rails laid down by 
private corporations on a toll basis. 

The relation of the invention of the 
steam engine and its subsequent appli- 
cation to methods of transportation 
upon the spread of civilization, and 
the accompanying progress of the arts 



and sciences in agriculture, manufac- 
ture, mining and other collateral forms 
of industry, is a trite topic, but is men- 
tioned here to mark the beginning of a 
new era in which man power and horse 
power became secondary to steam 
power. The initial efforts were re- 
ceived with hesitancy and in some cases 
with derision. 

In 1801 was inaugurated in England 
the first measure looking to the con- 
struction of a railway to carry agri- 
cultural products into London. The 
Surrey Iron Railway Act was the first 
true private act. Up to 1820 some 19 
other private acts were passed for rail- 
ways of the same type. These rail- 
ways were expressly authorized as 
highways and nothing more. They 
were open to all persons for the con- 
veyance of their own goods subject to 
the tolls prescribed and to the regu- 
lations as to types of wagons and car- 
riages. Horse haulage provided by the 
conveyor was the only power contem- 
plated. No passenger traffic was in- 
tended. 

The power of the companies was 
limited to taking tolls on goods con- 
veyed by other persons, somewhat 
after the manner of turnpike corpora- 
tions in various sections of the United 
States. Progress was being made, 
however, and in 1811 a steam locomo- 
tive with toothed wheels, working on 
a rack rail, was drawing coals in a 
colliery in Northumberland. 

The demonstration on June 24, 1814, 
of the power of George Stephenson's 
locomotive on the Killingworth Rail- 
way marked the real beginning of the 
new era in transportation methods. 
Still there were "doubting Thomases" 
and even in 1821 the promoters of the 
first Stockton and Darlington Railway 
Act were content to accept a bill for a 
horse-worked goods railway. 

The second Stockton and Darling- 
ton Act of 1823 was the first to confer 
authority to use steam and the first to 
provide for passenger traffic. The 
company was entitled to take tolls for 
goods conveyed by traders in their own 
wagons, for chariots, chaises, gigs, Ian- 



54 



The Conquerors 




Transportation 



55 



daus, wagons, carts and other carriages 
containing passengers, and for locomo- 
tive power where suppHed by the com- 
pany. The rail of the permanent way 
was made with a flange to permit ordi- 
nary road passenger vehicles to run 
upon it. This railway was opened on 
September 27, 1825 ; the passenger 
coaches were drawn by horses, the 
trains of wagons of coal and other 
merchandise by locomotives, and the 
first train run on the opening day 
drawn by a locomotive was preceded 



up to 1845, several railways of impor- 
tance were incorporated and were em- 
powered variously as to charging tolls 
on passengers in their own carriages 
and on goods conveyed in traders' 
wagons and also as to supplying loco- 
motive power with such charge there- 
for as they thought proper for hauling 
their own carriages, or those of trad- 
ers, in addition to road toll and loco- 
motive toll. This combined trackage 
right and traffic toll system created so 
much confusion and complaint that in 




State Coach Used by Andrew Jackson 

"In 1897 Col. Andrew Jackson sold to the Association the interesting old state coach used by 
Jackson at the White House for all state, ceremonial and social purposes and for several trips to the 
Hermitage. The trip to the Hermitage took thirty days' time."* 

*The Hermitage is located about ten miles from Nashville, Tenn. 

Courtesy Hunter McDonald, Chief Engr., N. C. & St. L. Ry. 



by a man on horseback to warn per- 
sons off the track. 

During the period between 1825 and 
1845 the transportation of persons and 
property in England was not the prov- 
ince of the railway corporations solely. 
The various acts prescribed the condi- 
tions between the corporation and the 
carriers, or those who had the right 
to convey on a road open to the pub- 
he. 

In 1826 and in the years following 



1845 the legislative acts were so drawn 
that the railway companies became the 
sole conveyors of traffic on the rail- 
ways, and railway transportation as 
now understood was inaugurated. 

It is interesting to note that in 1838 
the first "Sorting Carriage", the fore- 
runner of the railway compartment 
mail car, was fitted up on the railway 
between Birmingham and Liverpool; 
the first example of this form of car- 
riage was 16 feet long, 7 feet high and 



56 



The Conquerors 




Trevithick's First Locomotive 

The first locomotive in the world to be used on rails. 
Courtesy of The Railway Educational Bureau. 




Flanged Rails Supported by Stones 

Courtesy of Railway Educational Bureau. 



Transportation 



57 



7 feet 6 inches wide. The exterior 
was fitted with a device for exchanging 
mail bags en route, devised by John 
Ramsay and subsequently improved by 
John Dicker. 

In America the early forms of rail- 
ways took the characteristics of the 
English system prior to the introduc- 
tion of the steam locomotive. As early 
as 1807 it is claimed that a short 
stretch of railway was laid in Boston 
by Silas Whitney. The first line of 
authentic record was built in 1809 by 
Thomas Deiper, in Delaware County, 
Pennsylvania. It was a stone quar- 



Honesdale, Pennsylvania, 16 miles, 
built by the Delaware & Hudson Canal 
Co., the initial trip being made in 
1829. 

In 1830 the South Carolina Rail- 
road was projected, and construction 
begun. It was built to be operated 
by steam locomotive, the first railway 
in America to be so designed and con- 
structed. The locomotive was built at 
the West Point foundry and named 
The Best Friend, and was the first 
locomotive used in regular service in 
the United States. The second railway 
to use steam locomotives was the Balti- 




The "Strap Rail' 

This type of rail is still remembered by early travelers. 
Courtesy of The Railway Educational Bureau. 



ry tramway three-quarters of a mile 
long. This was followed by several 
tramroads of similar character, the 
most important of which was the one 
between Quincy and Newport, Massa- 
chusetts, three miles long, and one at 
Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania, nine 
miles long, both built in 1827. The 
tracks of these roads consisted of 
wooden rails or stringers, with iron 
straps, supported on stone sills. Both 
roads were operated by horsepower. 

The first actual operation of a rail- 
way by steam power in the United 
States was between Auburndale and 



more & Ohio between Baltimore and 
Elhcott's Mills, Maryland. 

The third road to mark a step in 
the development of the railway system 
in the United States was the Camden 
& Amboy, completed from Borden- 
town to South Amboy, New Jersey, in 
1832. This road was the first on 
which an all-iron rail was used in place 
of wood and strap rail, the iron rails 
being rolled in England and designed 
by R. L. Stevens, the President of 
the road. Their introduction on the 
Camden & Amboy marked the com- 
mencement of a new form of construe- 



58 



The Conquerors 




tion, and the first instance in which 
a flanged T-rail was used on any rail- 
road. 

The first regularly operated railroad 
in New England was the Boston & 
Lowell, 26% miles in length, opened 
in 1835. The rails were laid on longi- 
tudinal stringers which rested on stone 
(granite) sleepers. 

Railroad construction, after the ini- 
tial and somewhat experimental opera- 
tion of the earlier steam locomotive 
roads, was more active. Between 1831 
and 1855, in various sections of the 
United States, railways of varying 
lengths, the initial sections of present 
day systems of magnitude, were inau- 
gurated and opened for operation. 

In Europe, also, the example of 
Great Britain was followed, and be- 
ginning in France in 1823, the conti- 
nental states constructed lines of vary- 
ing importance. Other countries op- 
ened lines of transportation as follows : 
in Egypt in 1856, Cape Colony in 
1862, India in 1853, Japan in 1870- 
1872. 

The latest development in railroad 
transportation of unusual importance 
is the substitution in certain instances 
of electricity for steam as the motive 



The First Practical Locomotive 

Built by George Stephenson in 1815, and the 
"Matt H. Shay", the Erie Railroad's great centi- 
pede — the largest and most powerful locomotive 
ever built. 

Courtesy of Railroad Association Magazine 
and the Erie Railroad. 



power. This new application of 
scientific knowledge has but recently 
emerged from the experimental stage. 
It is especially well adapted to certain 
unusual conditions like difficulty in 
obtaining coal and water or danger 
from gases and smoke in long tunnels. 
Its economical possibility under ordi- 
nary conditions has not yet been dem- 
onstrated. The most recent applica- 
tion on a scale of considerable magni- 
tude is the electrification of the Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway 
over the Great Continental Divide in 
Montana and Idaho, a distance of 
440 miles. The successful perfor- 
mance of this electrified portion of the 




The Steuben 

A wood burning locomotive. 

Courtesy of the Erie Railroad and the Railroad 

Association Magazine. 



Transportation 



59 



railroad will mean further applications 
under like conditions. 

A mighty creation of the intellect 
of man, the railroad has revolution- 
ized the world's system of inland trans- 
portation. Another means of inland 
communication, antedating by many 
centuries the dream of Stephenson, 



ways connecting the Rhone and the 
Rhine with the Danube. In China 
the Grand Canal was built in the 
thirteenth century, serving the dual 
purpose of an irrigation canal and a 
transport way. 

The original canals were without 
locks, and could be used only for 




Ole Ironsides 

The first Baldwin locomotive. 

Courtesy of the Railway Educational Bureau. 



is worthy of brief notice. The canal 
systems of the world date back to 
very early Assyrian and Egyptian 
times. The Romans also constructed 
various works of this type, and Charle- 
magne projected a system of water- 



level navigation. An introduction of 
the lock system is claimed by the 
Italians, there having been lock cham- 
bers enclosed by gates in 1481, and 
in 1487 Leonardo Da Vinci completed 
six locks uniting: canals at Milan. 



60 



The Conquerors 




Transportation 



61 




The Famous 999 

Built for speed in the middle nineties. 
Courtesy of the New York Central Railroad. 




The General 

Famous war engine of the Western & Atlantic Railroad. Now on permanent exhibition in the 
Union Depot, Chattanooga, Tenn. 

The "General" was captured at Big Shanty (now Kennesaw), Georgia, April 12, 1862, by 
"Andrews' Soldiers" and recaptured near Ringold, Georgia, by W. A. Fuller, Conductor, and Anthony 
Murphy, Shop Foreman, for the Railroad Co., assisted by Confederates and others, after an exciting 
chase of about ninety miles. 

Courtesy of the Western Reserve Historical Society. 



62 



The Conquerors 



France completed its first most im- 
portant canal in 1681. In Russia 
Peter the Great undertook the con- 
struction of a system of canals in the 
eighteenth century. In England the 
oldest artificial canal, which is a relic 
of Roman occupation, extends from 
Lincoln to the River Trent. 

In the United States the first canal 
was built in 1793 at South Hadley, 
Massachusetts, and from that small 



It was one of the first projected, 
being commenced in 1817 and com- 
pleted in 1825, at a cost of approxi- 
mately $7,600,000. Up to 1898 there 
had been expended by the state of 
New York on this artificial waterway, 
for construction and improvements, 
an aggregate of over $61,000,000, and 
the present program for enlarging the 
section to provide for barge movement 
will add $150,000,000 more. One of 




Electric Locomotives. C, M. & St. P. Electrification 

Courtesy of C. M. & St. P. Ry. 



beginning, of local importance only, 
there were developed during the next 
century over 4,000 miles of canals, 
the value of which as a transport way, 
in service to the public, has been very 
great. 

One of the most important of the 
earlier canal projects in the United 
States was the Erie Canal between 
the Hudson River and Lake Erie. 



the most important canals is that 
known as the "Soo", between Lake 
Superior and Lake Huron, celebrated 
for the extensive locks and for the 
enormous tonnage passed. 

A review of the world's methods of 
transportation would not be complete 
without mention of the natural water- 
ways and man's use of them during 
all the centuries which lie behind us. 



Transportation 



63 




H'-- 

■4'A! 



\ 



v< 



\ 



f 




.:J1 


H 


P^^P 


|^\-K- 


11 


Jl 


1^^^ 




I 


J 




'W^ 



V .'-l"'^*>&'/v-.-< 



o . 

4J O 



64 



The Conquerors 




Transportation 



65 



Between the Phoenicians who encircled 
Africa, and the first world circumnav- 
igators, ages intervened, but the same 
spirit animated each. The object of 
the navigator was to advance trade, 
and the merchant and the sailor, often 



navigators played in advancing its flag 
into the trading centers of the globe 
and in developing by ocean carriage 
an immensely valuable intercontinental 
commerce. 

Transportation upon the sea by 




Inclined Railroad at Johnstown, Pa. 

The cars are balanced by a cable passing over the drum of a stationary engine at the top of the 
incline. It is only the rolling friction and the difference of weight between the ascending and descend- 
ing cars that must be overcome by the engine. 

Courtesy of F. W. Claflin. 



the two combined in one, rivaled the 
adventurer in daring and in the con- 
quest of the wilderness. America can 
recall with pride the part its early 



means of sailing ships attained its 
highest development during the first 
half of the nineteenth century. Dur- 
ing this period there was developed 



66 



The Conquerors 



the famous clipper ship which has 
figured so prominently in English liter- 
ature. A volume has been devoted 
to this subject by G. P. Putnams 
Sons, entitled "The Chpper Ship Era", 
in which we read, "The clipper ship 
era began in 1843 as a result of the 
growing demand for the more rapid 
delivery of tea from China, continued 
under the stimulating influence of the 
discovery of gold in Cahfornia and 
Austraha in 1849 and 1851, and ended 



any considerable period unbalances 
the world's traffic, and menaces the 
well being of all nations. The regular 
distribution of the daily food supply 
is dependent upon the steady continu- 
ing flow of the various products of the 
soil, of the forest and of the mines, 
through and over the radiating lines 
of transportation on water and on 
land. We hear much about arteries 
of commerce, but their true relation 
to the hfe of any community is fully 




The Flying Cloud 

"And the Flying Cloud on August 31 (1851) completed in 89 days — a passage* never surpassed and 
only twice equalled — once three years later by the Flying Cloud herself and once in 1860 by the 
Andrew Jackson.* 

*New York to San Francisco. 

Courtesy of G. P. Putnams Sons. 



with the opening of the Suez Canal, 
in 1869." After thousands of years 
the ship builder's art produced this 
finest type of sailing ship only to see 
it yield to the power of steam in the 
brief space of twenty-six years. 

The improvement of the marine 
engine has kept pace with the devel- 
opment of the locomotive. 

The interruption, from any cause, 
of the lines of communication for 



realized only when from some cause 
those arteries cease to pulse and their 
life-sustaining influence is vitiated. 
The margin between hunger satisfied 
and hunger unsatisfied in our large 
centers of population is maintained 
only by the steady flow into those 
centers of the staple food supplies. 

Transportation is the keystone of 
the arch of the world's progress. 



Some Notable Masonry Bridges 

By Henry S. Jacoby* 



The natural bridge of Virginia 
crosses Cedar Creek at the western 
base of the Blue Ridge mountains in 
Virginia, about 125 miles west of 
Richmond. It was formed by the 
removal through erosion of the sil- 
iceous limestone that underlay the 
surface rock. The top of the bridge 
is about 215 feet above the stream, 
the length of the span 90 feet, the 
thickness of the top of the arch 40 
feet, and the width 60 feet.' The 
bridge was first mentioned in print in 
1759, and the tract including the site 
of the bridge was granted by the 
King in 1774 to Thomas Jefferson. 
After Jefferson became President he 
made a map of it with his own hands 
and spoke of the place as one which 
would attain world-wide fame. In 
1856 a London photographer was sent 
to America with a commission to take 
six pictures, including two of Niagara 
Falls, one of the great timber trestle 
bridge at Portage, New York, and one 
of the natural bridge of Virginia. 

Old London Bridge, the first stone 
bridge built across the Thames, was 
begun in 1176 by Peter Colechurch, 
and finished by a Frenchman called 
Isembert, in 1209. The time required 
for its construction gives some indica- 
tion of the difficulties encountered in 
placing the foundations as well as the 
arches. The obstruction to the cur- 
rent in the river by so many piers 
and by the protection cribs when the 
piers gave signs of weakness caused 
swift currents, which seriously in- 
creased the damage done by storm and 
tide. Referring to the number of 
arches, an old satire on the bridge said : 
"If London Bridge had fewer eyes it 
would see far better." A quaint pro- 



*Professor of Bridge Engineering Cornell Uni- 
versity. 

^Tf the Statue of Liberty were placed, pedestal 
and all, beneath the bridge there would still re- 
main above its torch a clear gap of 60 feet. 



verbial saying put it thus: "London 
Bridge was made for wise men to go 
over and fools to go under." 

Houses were built on the roadway 
as on an arcade, and the income 
they yielded was intended to provide 
for the repair and maintenance of the 
bridge. In 1358 these houses con- 
tained 138 booths and shops, most of 
them tenanted by pin and needle 
makers, so that the bridge was one 
of the busiest marts in the city. As 
there was no sidewalk a group of 
foot passengers generally followed a 
carriage to insure safety in crossing. 
Openings opposite each other were 
left on each side between the houses, 
to permit passengers to view the river 
and its busy craft. The most beau- 
tiful of these houses contained St. 
Thomas Chapel in the first story and 
a dwelhng above. The remains of 
Peter Colechurch were buried below 
the chapel staircase. 

In addition to the nine arches, each 
having a span of about 60 feet, there 
was a wooden hinged lift bridge, act- 
ing hke a horizontal trap door, which 
could be raised to let a ship pass 
through. This movable span was 
finally replaced by a fixed span. The 
bridge was decorated with arms and 
shields, some of them colored, as well 
as with statues. During a certain 
period it was decorated on midsummer 
day with leafy boughs and garlands. It 
was also decorated as a greeting to 
the king when he returned from vic- 
tories. The coronation processions 
of some kings passed over it. On 
December 4, 1586, the sentence of 
execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, 
was read at London Bridge in the 
presence of officers, nobility and emi- 
nent citizens. An old picture shows 
also other characteristic decorations, 
consisting of the heads of traitors 
exposed on poles over the gates of 
the bridge. 



67 



68 



The Conquerors 




The Natural Bridge of Virginia 

By courtesy of J. E. Crawford, Chief Engr., Norfolk & Western Ry. 



Some Notable Masonry Bridges 



69 



pq 



O ^ 



We are told that London Bridge 
itself, so richly decorated, so useful, 
so much admired, was in frequent 
need of repairs, but these repairs were 
never made until danger was immi- 
nent, or even till catastrophe had hap- 
pened. Henry III confiscated the 
funds of the bridge and granted its 
revenues to his beloved wife, who neg- 
lected to maintain the bridge and 
appropriated to herself without scruple 
the rents of the buildings. The finan- 
cial problem of maintaining the bridge 
was intensified by the ravages of fire, 
which at different times destroyed the 
houses. When the incessant need of 
repairing the bridge had become pro- 
verbial, a song was composed that 
later attained the rank of a nursery 
rhyme, the first verse of which is : 

"London Bridge is broken down, 
Dance o'er my Lady Lee ; 

London Bridge is broken down, 
With a gay lady." 

The old bridge was replaced by the 
present London Bridge, with its fine, 
beautiful stone arches, which was 
opened with great ceremony August 1, 
1831. A part of the stone of the old 
bridge was used to build Ingress 
Abbey, and some of the wood was 
used to make snuff boxes and other 
mementoes of this historic structure. 

Some of the stone channels or aque- 
ducts that were used to convey pure 
water from distant sources to the 
ancient city of Rome are still in ex- 
istence. These aqueducts were carried 
over valleys or streams on stone arch 
bridges, which are noted for the 
skilled workmanship employed in their 
construction, the remarkable simplicity 
of their designs and their good form 
and proportion, as well as for their 
stabihty. 

The Pont du Gard bridge that 
spans the river Gard, at Nimes, 
France, is one of the many en- 
gineering structures built by the 
Romans in the countries conquered by 
their armies. It was constructed at 
about the beginning of the Christian 
era, during the reign of Augustus 



70 



The Conquerors 




a 



Some Notable Masonry Bridges 



71 



Caesar. The largest arch through 
which the river runs has a span of 
80 feet 5 inches ; the others range from 
51 feet to 63 feet, except those of 
the upper story, which are 15 feet 9 
inches. The height above the river 
bed is 161 feet. The cut-stone work 
was laid without cement, the stones 
being closely fitted together. The 
rest of the masonry is irregular and 
was laid up in cement. The water 
channel in the aqueduct on top is 4 
feet wide and 4 feet 9 inches high. 
It was lined with a coating of cement 
2 inches thick, inside of which was 



commonly known as the Foochow 
Long Bridge. It crosses the Min 
River at Foochow, and was completed 
in the seventh year of the Emperor 
Ta Te, in the Yuan Dynasty, about 
1303 A. D. The bridge is about 
1,400 feet long and 30 feet high from 
the river bed to the bottom of the 
stone beams. It has 36 spans, three 
of which were made larger than the 
rest to permit big vessels to pass 
between the piers. The work was 
begun by an abbott known as Pou 
Tou, who lived in a temple near the 
riverside. He was so deeply affected 




Present London Bridge 



Courtesy of F. C. Osborn. 



a covering of red mastic, giving a 
perfectly smooth surface. The chan- 
nel was covered with stone slabs. The 
projecting stones shown in the picture 
were used in connection with the scaf- 
folding employed in erecting the 
bridge. Because of its excellent con- 
struction and of systematic repairs 
which have been made as needed, this 
aqueduct bridge is still in good condi- 
tion. 

The Wan Shou Ch'iao, signifying 
Bridge of Ten Thousand Ages, is 



by frequent deaths due to boats up- 
setting in the freshets that he re- 
solved to build a bridge. He was 20 
years collecting sufficient money to 
build the piers, and he died soon after 
the piers were finished. Some 30 
years later, under a new governor, the 
bridge was completed. Many curious 
traditions cluster about this structure, 
and about those who built it, and the 
small temple Kou, which is built in one 
of the largest piers. As shown in the 
picture, large slabs or beams composed 



72 



The Conquerors 




Some Notable Masonry Bridges 



7Z 




74 



The Conquerors 




Some Notable Masonry Bridges 



75 




u 



M 



7(i 



The Conquerors 




Some Notable Masonry Bridges 



77 



of single stones rest upon the piers 
to form the roadway. Some of these 
slabs are of great weight, and as the 
builders must have had no powerful 
hoisting machinery, the task of put- 
ting these stone beams in place was 
doubtless difficult and tedious. The 
work was probably done by means of 
boats or rafts during periods of high 
water. One of the stones in a sim- 
ilar bridge near Amoy is 70 feet long, 
5 feet thick and 4 feet wide, and 



signed by General M. C. Meigs, of the 
Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army. It 
is noted for its simplicity of form, its 
good proportions, and its projecting 
horizontal courses, which cast deep 
shadows that add to the artistic effect. 
The solid arch ring is of granite care- 
fully cut, 4 feet deep at the crown 
or center of the arch, and 6 feet deep 
at the ends where the arch springs 
from its supports. The walls on each 
face are of sandstone. Some of the 




D., L. & W. R. R. Bridge Over the Delaware River 

The "water gap" is seen in the distance. 



weighs over 105 tons. The picture 
shows that the bridge is also used as 
a market. Each of the spans is under 
the care of a certain Fukien district, 
which repairs it when necessary. 

Cabin John Bridge supports an aque- 
duct that carries the water supply of 
the city of Washington and a roadway 
20 feet wide at a height of 101 feet 
above Cabin John creek, a small trib- 
utary of the Potomac. It was de- 



stones next to the arch ring are laid 
with joints radiating like those of 
the ring; the rest are laid with hori- 
zontal joints. 

The length of the clear span of the 
arch is 220 feet, and the lower curve 
of the arch rises 57 feet. It was 
built in 1857-1864 and was then the 
largest single span stone -arch bridge 
in the world. It is surprising to 
note that it maintained this rank for 



78 



The Conquerors 




Some Notable Masonry Bridges 



79 



39 years. At present the largest 
clear span stone arch is 295.3 feet, 
but slightly larger arches have been 
built in concrete. 

The main arch of the Rocky River 
bridge has a clear span of 280 feet, 
and when it was completed, in 1910, 
it was the largest arch built of con- 
crete. It carries the extension of 
Detroit Avenue, Cleveland, over Rocky 
River. In outHne, the bridge re- 
sembles the Walnut Lane bridge, over 
Wissahickon Creek, in Fairmount 
Park, Philadelphia. The most notable 
feature of its design consists in the 
fact that there are practically two 
arch bridges, each 18 feet wide, sep- 
arated by a clear space of 16 feet but 
having a common floor system. The 
wide roadway and sidewalks are thus 
supported at less cost than if the 
supporting arches extended over the 
full width. The erection was simpli- 
fied and reduced in cost by building 
one arch rib after the other, so that 
the same equipment and temporary 
supporting steel arches were used for 
both. The contractor for a large 
bridge should not only have in hand 
designs that have been prepared by 
competent engineers to meet the re- 
quirements of the location and traffic 
and to insure adequate strength and 
ultimate economy in both construc- 
tion and maintenance, but should 
employ a consulting engineer to aid 
him in performing his task of con- 
structing the bridge with safety and 
economy and of meeting the require- 
ments of the designing engineer as 
to quality of material and form and 
dimensions of the bridge. The beauty 
of the Rocky River bridge is apparent 
from the picture. 

A highway or railroad track that 
approaches a bridge which crosses 
a river may be carried on a solid 
bank of earth or rock, or it may be 
supported by other spans that are 
smaller than those of the bridge and 



of different form, so that most ob- 
servers will have little or no diffi- 
culty in knowing where the bridge 
proper begins and ends. If, however, 
the valley is wide and the stream 
small, the bridge may have many 
spans, all of practically the same 
form. Such a bridge is called a via- 
duct. Most of the viaducts in the 
country might be described as steel 
trestles consisting of many short 
spans carried by steel towers. 

The Tunkhannock Viaduct consists 
of a series of concrete arches, ten 
of which have a clear span of 180 
feet, and two (buried in the end 
embankments) of 100 feet. The bridge 
is 2,375 feet long; its top is 240 feet 
above the surface of Tunkhannock 
Creek and 300 feet above the bot- 
tom of the foundation. It is on the 
great cut-off between Clark's Sum- 
mit and Hallstead, on the Delaware, 
Lackawanna & Western Railroad, 22 
miles west of Scranton. This cut-off 
has so greatly reduced the grade that 
a freight train which previously re- 
quired five locomotives now requires 
only two. As shown in the picture, 
the large arch rings support a series 
of small arches, which in turn carry 
the double-track roadbed. The bridge 
contains more material than any other 
in the world and represents the best 
type of design and construction in 
massive concrete work. Its construc- 
tion required a large equipment of 
machinery. The concrete was placed 
with big steel buckets which were 
hoisted up to and carried along on 
great wire cables that extended over 
the whole length of the bridge and 
were supported on three towers. The 
wooden forms into which the con- 
crete was poured were supported by 
temporary steel arch bridges. The 
bridge was opened to traffic Novem- 
ber 6, 1915. It is a true monument 
to the scientific knowledge, ability 
and courage of modern engineers. 



80 



The Conquerors 



THE OLDEST EXISTING 
BRIDGE 

The oldest existing bridge is over the 
Llobregat river at Matorell, in the 
province of Barcelona, in Spain. It 
is also called the Devil's bridge. This 
bridge was built about 219 B. C., dur- 



and shows a correct understanding of 
load distribution, indicated by the 
massive high walls on top of the apex. 
The bridge is not suited for wagon 
traffic but only for pack mules and 
pedestrians. 

To the right is shown a triumphal 




The Oldest Existing Bridge 



ing the time of Hannibal. Some ac- arch in commemoration of Hannibal's 



counts ascribe the building of the 
bridge to him. It is built of hewn 
stone. The largest opening has a span 
of 121 feet. 

The bridge is of pointed arch type 



father, Amilcaris. It is known that 
the bridge was thoroughly repaired 
in the year 1766 under Charles III 
of Spain. 

— Giistav Lindenthal. 



Measurement of Stream Flow by the United 
States Geological Survey 

By John C. Hoyt* 



In all times one of the most impor- 
tant factors in the development of a 
country has been the water in its sur- 
face streams. In our own country 
settlement in the East followed the 
principal rivers, which served as lines 
of communication and commerce and 
as sources of power for small indus- 
tries ; and in the West settlement along 
streams has been promoted by the 
availability of water for irrigation. 



>^ 



created commissions or other organiza- 
tions to investigate the quantity and 
availability of the surface water sup- 
ply and to administer its distribution 
and use. These officials have added 
their demand to that of the many users 
for an exact knowledge of the quan- 
tity of water in the streams and of 
the variations in quantity from season 
to season and from year to year. To 
meet this demand the United States 



^ 6 

2 



X 5 






800 



1,600 



2,400 3,200 4,000 4,800 

DISCHARGE !N SECOND-FEET 
Fig. 1 — Rating Curve for Indian Creek Near Crescent Mills, California 



5,600 



The uses of the water resources 
have changed with changing commer- 
cial conditions resulting from the in- 
crease in population, so that the ques- 
tion of adequate water supply to meet 
the growth in all parts of the country 
has become so important that many 
states, especially in the West, have 

*Hydraulic Engineer, in charge Division of 
Surface Waters, U. S. Geological Survey. 



Geological Survey, in 1888, in con- 
nection with other investigations, be- 
gan to collect systematic data pertain- 
ing to the flow of surface streams 
of the country. As work of this 
nature on so broad a scale had never 
before been undertaken it was neces- 
sary at the start to develop both 
methods and instruments, and the 
methods and instruments devised by 



81 



The Conquerors 




Fig 2— Ideal Gaging Station 
Shows au.o™..i. «>.e ins.aUation, inclined staff .age, and caMe .or .aUing :neasure™.n.. 




Fig. 3— Water- Stage Recorder 



Measurement of Stream Flow 



83 



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AUGUST. 1915 



SEPTEMBER. 1915 



Fig. a — Record of Stage From Water-Stage Recorder 




Fig. 5 — Water-Stage Register, Agua Fria, 
Near Glendale, Ariz. 

Recently floods nearly overtopped the structure. 



the engineers of the Geological Sur- 
vey have become standard in this 
country and abroad. 

The quantity of water flowing in 
a surface stream at any given time 
and place may be ascertained by 
measuring two factors — the cross sec- 
tion and the mean velocity. The 
product of these two factors is the 
quantity of discharge- For example, 
a stream with a cross sectional area 
of 100 square feet and a mean 
velocity in that section of 5 feet per 
second is discharging 500 cubic feet 
per second. 

As the stage of a stream rises both 
the cross section and the velocity 
increase and there is a corresponding 
increase in discharge. It has been 
found that in general a stream with 
a stable channel will carry practically 
the same quantity of flowing water 
whenever it is at a given stage ; in 
other words, the relation of discharge 
to stage is permanent. It is possible, 
therefore, by making a few meas- 
urements of discharge distributed 



84 



The Conquerors 




Fig. 6 — Water-Stage Recorder, Merced Ri\'er, Yosemite Valley, California 




Fig. 7 — Cable Station With Automatic Gage, Deerfield River, Charlemont, Mass. 



Measurement of Stream Flow 



85 




Fig. 8 — Cable Gaging Station With Water-Stage Recorder, Tuolumne River 
Hetch Hetchy, California 




Fig. 9 — Discharge Measurement by Wading, Rock Creek, D. C. 



86 



The Conquerors 



throughout the range of stage in a 
stream, to define a rating curve from 
which a rating table, giving the dis- 
charge for any stage, can be made. 
Fig. 1 shows such a rating curve. 
From the rating table and a record of 
mean daily stage the mean flow for 
each day can be ascertained. 

The points at which records of daily 
discharge are collected are called gag- 
ing stations. At each gaging station 



Survey who travel from station to 
station. 

A water-stage recorder (Fig. 3) 
consists essentially of a clock which 
drives a pencil at a uniform rate along 
a drum rotated by a float that rises 
and falls with the stage. The record 
(shown typically in Fig. 4) is traced 
by the pencil on a sheet of paper fast- 
ened to the drum. 

An automatic gage of the type 




Fig. 10 — Bridge Gaging Station, Rock Creek, D. C. 



a record of daily fluctuations in stage 
is kept by a local observer, who reads 
it from a graduated staff (indicated 
in the foreground in Fig. 2) set in 
the river, or by a water-stage recorder 
which automatically makes a curve 
showing to scale the fluctuations of 
stage. The measurements of dis- 
charge are made by engineers of the 



shown must be installed over a float 
well connected with the river by an 
intake pipe. A shelter for the gage 
is placed over the well. Fig. 2 shows 
an ideally installed automatic gage 
and Figs- 5 to 8, stations which are 
now being operated. 

In measuring the discharge it is 
necessary to ascertain the area of cross 



Measurement of Stream Flow 



87 



section and the velocity of the flow- built, or cables carrying cars as shown 

ing water. in Figs. 2, 7 and 8. 

A structure of some form for sup- The area of cross section of a 

porting the engineer while he is mak- stream is measured by soundings made 

ing the measurement is necessary if at regular intervals across the stream; 




m n '». V 1 



jW 






'm^^ 



iV 7' W. 9': 'F&'V -.r 'ft! 



« " ' ^ 



r.'^i J :i\' i\ '51 m 





V\4 i ->i Si i '0: -6! 




Fig. 11 — Current Meters for Measuring Velocity of Flowing Water 



the stream is too small for the engi- 
neer to wade (Fig. 9). Such a struc- 
ture may be a highway or railroad 
bridge (Fig. 10), a bridge specially 



the velocity of the moving water, the 
other factor of the discharge, is meas- 
ured by a current meter. The cur- 
rent meter, shown in Fig. 11, consists 



The Conquerors 



of a wheel composed of a series of 
cups which are revolved by moving 
water. Each meter is so calibrated 
that the number of revolutions of this 
wheel in a given time shows the veloci- 
ty of the water at the point at which 
the meter is held. Time is measured 




Fig. 12 — Discharge Measuremext Under 

Ice, Wisconsin River at 

MuscoDA, Wis. 

Shows vertical velocity curve. 

by a stop watch, and the number of 
revolutions of the meter is indicated 
to the observer by a telephonic receiv- 
er connected with the meter wheel in 
electric circuit which is made and 
broken at each revolution or each fifth 
revolution of the wheel. 

The distribution of the velocity in 
any vertical section of a stream fol- 



lows the general law of a parabola, so 
that the mean of the velocities at 0.2 
and at 0.8 depth is the mean for that 
vertical section. This statement is 
true of both open and ice-covered 
streams. Fig, 12 illustrates the gen- 
eral form of the vertical velocity 
curve and the method of making 
measurements in winter. The applica- 
bility of this law makes possible a 
measurement of discharge of a stream 
by means of relatively few observa- 
tions of velocity- 

The zero of each gage must be 
referred to a permanent bench mark, 
so that if the gage is destroyed it can 
be replaced at its original elevation. 
The bench mark plays an important 
part, therefore, in the maintenance 
and operation of a gaging station. 

In the conduct of stream-gaging by 
the United States Geological Survey 
the country is divided into 16 districts, 
each of which is in charge of a dis- 
trict engineer who has a corps of 
assistants for collecting the. data. Be- 
tween 80 and 100 men are thus 
engaged continuously in the work, 
and systematic records of flow are 
collected at over 1,200 gaging stations 
on many streams in the United States. 
Stream-gaging work is also being 
done in Alaska and Hawaii. Records 
derived from the data obtained in the 
field are published in a series of re- 
ports called "Water Supply Papers". 
The published records for a single 
year aggregate about 3,000 printed 
pages, divided into 15 volumes. 

As a result of the investigations of 
the water resources of the United 
States by the Geological Survey, data 
are now available in regard to stream- 
flow at over 3,000 gaging stations on 
many streams throughout the United 
States. These data have been an 
important factor in the development 
of power, irrigation, municipal water 
supply and other projects which de- 
pend for their success upon the flow 
of water in streams. They also serve 
as a basis for the operation of such 
projects and have had extensive use in 
connection with navigation, flood, 
drainage, and other problems. 



Recent Developments in Naval Architecture 

By Chas. F. Gross* 



Nothing could be considered to have 
added more to the development of 
Naval Architecture than the adoption 
of iron and steel as the material used 
for vessels of war. Further changes 
have altered the conditions of naval 
architecture. These resulted from 
the improvements in propelling ma- 
chinery, additional protection of ships 
by armor, and the advancement in the 
manufacture of explosives, guns and 
torpedoes. 

Before discussing the architecture of 
naval vessels of today, a brief resume 
of the steps leading up to the present 
status is necessary. The first advance 
from the old wooden frigates was 
the development of the ironclad. The 
monitor, well protected by armor, hav- 
ing its machinery below water-line, 
was a ship of low freeboard. This en- 
abled a heavy battery to be carried on 
a ship of comparatively small displace- 
ment, indicating small dimensions and 
light draught. As the main battery 
was carried very near the water, the 
use of this type of vessel was restrict- 
ed to smooth water. 

The first monitor, so-called, was 
built during the American Civil War 
by John Ericsson, a Swedish-Amer- 
ican naval engineer. This vessel was 
170 feet in length, 41^ feet beam 
and displaced 1,200 tons. She was 
of low speed and with main deck just 
above the water. The sides were pro- 
tected by armor approximately five 
inches thick, built up of one-inch plates 
and laid on a wood backing of 27 
inches. The single revolving turret 
which she mounted was a new devel- 
opment in naval construction. It 
was circular in shape and was placed 
on the fore-and-aft center line mid- 
way between the bow and stern and 
contained two 11-inch smooth bore 
guns protected by 8-inch armor. 



Instructor, United States Naval Academy. 



For many years the types of steel 
and iron vessels were known as cruis- 
ers and gunboats. These vessels 
paved the way for the more recent 
designs such as the armored cruisers, 
battleships, torpedo boats, destroyers, 
scout cruisers, dreadnoughts, super- 
dreadnoughts, battle cruisers and sub- 
marines. 

The battleship of today was not all 
conceived at one time, but is the result 
of gradual and continuous changing. 
The first protection of steel vessels was 
by means of an armor belt which ex- 
tended from a few feet below the 
water line to the height of the main 
deck, along the center portion of the 
ship. In general outline these vessels 
were similar to the old wooden fri- 
gates, as shown in the U. S. S. Ten- 
nessee. Their rudder heads and steer- 
ing gear, placed above the water line, 
were not protected from shell fire. 
In later vessels, protection was afford- 
ed the steering gear by placing it below 
the water line and fitting a sloping 
armored deck called the protective 
deck. In this way the adoption of 
armor for the protection of vital parts 
of the ship had become established 
and the practice of utilizing armor 
in such a way as to exclude pro- 
jectiles from the region of the water 
line became fixed. 

In its early day the cruiser per- 
formed all sorts of service, from 
"showing the flag" and protecting 
individuals in foreign countries, to 
exploring and surveying parts of 
the deep seas. The cruiser class 
may be said to have been the 
beginning of the modern navy. One of 
the first was the Chicago, of 4,500 
tons. She was what is termed a pro- 
tected cruiser, protection being afford- 
ed by a deck of light armor extend- 
ing forward and aft over the engines 
and boilers. This was curved down- 
ward at the sides to a little below 



89 



90 



The Conquerors 




Measurement of Stream Flow 



91 



~X^™_^5^sfeii 



H 




92 



The Conquerors 




Recent Developments in Naval Architecture 



93 




94 



The Conquerors 





il 



t- . . 



Measurement of Stream Flow 



95 




96 



The Conquerors 



the water line, the purpose being 
to protect the vitals of the ship 
from gunfire. In succeeding years 
the size of ships built was increased, 
and the new vessels were called ar- 
mored cruisers. In addition to the 
protective deck, a light armor belt ex- 
tended a short distance above and be- 
low the water line. The extension of 
this armor belt longitudinally and up- 
ward to shield a greater portion of the 
hull insured both increased protection 
and stability. The coal bunkers were 
placed along the sides of the ships, 
on the assumption that they would be 
filled, or partly so, in battle and thus 
afford additional protection. Later 
vessels were built which were called 
commerce destroyers and for their 
day possessed remarkable speed due 
to their fine lines and powerful en- 
gines. In 1906, the Washington, now 
known as the Seattle, was placed in 
commission. She is a vessel of 14,500 
tons displacement, propelled by two 
triple expansion engines, developing 
27,000 horsepower. Her trial speed 
was 22^ knots. Her armament is 
four 10-inch guns, 16 6-inch, 22 3-inch 
and several smaller caliber. The side 
armor is about five inches thick and 
the protective deck varies from 1^ to 
4 inches in thickness. Vessels of this 
class, formidable only against each 
other, are no match for the battle- 
cruiser and are no longer built by 
important maritime powers. 

At the close of the nin^eenth cen- 
tury the type of battleship common 
to all the great powers was a vessel 
of some 12,000 tons. Her heaviest 
guns were 12 or 13-inch, usually four 
in number. She also mounted several 
fighter guns of 6 or 8-inch caliber, 
the latter disposed in turrets on either 
side of the ship. Then again there 
were lighter guns of 4 or 5-inch 
caliber for use against torpedo boat 
attack and a swarm' of six-pounders 
and machine guns. The multiplicity of 
calibers was not efficient. Finally, 
in 1906, the first "all big gun" battle- 
ship was completed. She was the 
English ''Dreadnought" and mounted 
ten 12-inch guns in five turrets. This 



was the entire main battery. Along 
her sides were 24 12-pounders, there 
being no intermediate caliber. She 
was turbine driven and could steam 
21 knots. As the advent of the 
Dreadnought soon made the prede- 
cessors obsolete, every nation at once 
laid down vessels of the type and of 
equal or superior fighting power. 
Soon the dreadnought, as the type 
was known, became larger and more 
powerful. Next the "Superdread- 
nought", the standard warship of the 
world — the principal unit of the battle 
line, was evolved. 

On older vessels there were carried 
two masts, each mounted by small 
rapid-firing guns, to ward off tor- 
pedo boat attack. On all vessels of 
recent construction in our navy tall 
towers of fight steel tubing, somewhat 
resembhng the Eifel Tower, were 
fitted instead of the hollow steel masts. 
This construction ehminated the dan- 
ger of carrying away the mast by a 
single shot, as would be the case of 
the former type if struck fairly. 

The arrangement of placing turrets 
forward and aft and on either side, 
the so-called quadrilateral arrange- 
ment, ceased, and all turrets were 
placed on a fore-and-aft center fine. 
This arrangement was first introduced 
on United States vessels and is now 
followed by all other navies. The 
two-gun turret has been displaced by 
the three-gun type which results in 
a greater concentration of fire and a 
reduction in weight of armor. In 
addition, successive improvements in 
armor production generally afforded 
a greater degree of protection for 
the same weight of armor carried. 
Propulsion by reciprocating engines 
has given way to propulsion by tur- 
bines driving the propeller directly 
or through mechanical reduction gears. 
In several vessels now under con- 
struction for the U. S. government, 
power will be suppfied to the pro- 
pellers by electric motors which de- 
rive their power from turbo-electric 
generators. 

The duty of the scout cruiser is, as 
the name implies, to seek the enemy. 



Recent Developments in Naval Architecture 



97 




The Conquerors 




Recent Developments in Naval Architecture 



99 




100 



The Conquerors 




Recent Developments in Naval Architecture 



101 





* 



l^fe 



102 



The Conquerors 



In order to accomplish this, this type 
of ship must have fuel capacity to 
permit of steaming long distances. 
Her speed must be the highest prac- 
ticable. It will not be pleasant to 
run, but the principal duty of the scout 
is to get information and convey it to 
the commander-in-chief. Her arma- 
ment is necessarily light. She is 
simply the eyes of the fleet. The 
scout must not only be seaworthy 
but habitable as well and so she is 
given great freeboard. This is illus- 
trated in the U. S. S. Birmingham. 
The high, sharp bow keeps her deck 
dry forward. 

In order to pierce the outer line or 
screen of the enemy's battlefleet and 
to get close enough to determine its 
character, the battlecruiser was devel- 
oped. This vessel can also be counted 
upon to deliver a flank attack upon 
the enemy's line. She must have two 
essentials, guns and speed. Her guns 
must equal in range and number 
those opposed to them, whether by 
battleship or other battlecruiser. Her 
speed must be sufficient to act in the 
fast wing of the fleet, either taking the 
changing positions rapidly or with- 
drawing when necessary, and it is us- 
ually five knots or more greater than 
that of the battleship. This means 
power, and power means weight of ma- 
chinery and fuel. Sustained speed in a 
heavy sea, moreover, implies more 
power. To combine speed and large 
guns necessarily entails a large ship. 

A type of vessel which at one time 
seemed to gain favor with maritime 
powers, but did not last long, was the 
ram. Accidental collisions have shown 
how fatal a wound may be given by 
the ram of a modern ship. In a melee 
it was thought that the opportunities 
would occur for the use of the ram. 
but science has improved other weap- 
ons which nullify the use of the ram. 
Both guns and torpedoes make it 
impracticable for one fleet to engage 
another at close quarters and thus ren- 
der the chance of melee most un- 
likely. The ram lay low in the water 
with no freeboard and had a strongly 



built projection of steel extending from 
the bow of the vessel. 

The torpedo boat destroyer has been 
extensively developed by naval archi- 
tects. The general appearance of 
these vessels has not changed as much 
as m the case of the battleship. There 
has been a change, however, in 
size in order to accommodate 
a larger crew which was in- 
creased on account of increased 
steaming, radius, speed and seaworthi- 
ness. Several guns of small cahber 
are carried for defense against other 
destroyers and offensive against sub- 
marines. The speed of the destroyer 
is approximately 35 knots. The high 
speed was attained in earlier vessels 
by reciprocating engines, but those of 
recent construction have power sup- 
plied by steam turbines. 

The submarine, which is in a class 
by itself in appearance and general 
characteristics, has made wonderful 
strides in the last decade. From a 
vessel in the experimental stage it has 
attained a high standing in the navies 
of the world. Its appearance when 
running on the surface of the water 
is not like that of any vessel in the 
past. All obstructions which tend to 
increase the resistance of the vessel 
when submerged are eliminated. Only 
a central portion protruding from the 
hull, known as the conning tower, 
enclosing the periscopes and other 
necessary equipment is visible. The 
reason for the submarine in early 
periods was to have a vessel which 
could defend harbors from attack. 
Owing to the long range of modern 
guns it has been necessary to build 
a type of boat which could operate 
many miles from the coast line. This 
has led to the coast defense sub- 
marine. This submarine could not 
withstand the seas and in heavy 
weather was not efficient for active 
work. There are now under con- 
struction for the United States navy 
"fleet submarines". These are much 
larger in displacement than the coast 
defense submarines and have better 
sea-going qualities, and are able to 
accompany the battleship fleet. 



Index to Advertisers 

Page 

Adams-Bagnall Electric Co., The 26 

American Steel & Wire Co 25 

Austin Co., The 10 

Bidle, W. S., Co., The 25 

Brierley Machine Co 25 

Brooks, T. H., & Co 24 

Brown Hoisting Machinery Co., The 16 

Bruce-Macbeth Engine Co., The 21 

Burrows Bros Co., The 12 

Champion Rivet Co., The 8 

Chase Machine Co., The 25 

Cleveland Crane & Engineering Co., The 15 

Cleveland Frog & Crossing Co 20 

Cleveland Telephone Co., The 18 

Cleveland Tool & Supply Co., The 26 

Cleveland Twist Drill Co., The 6 

Cleveland Worm & Gear Co., The 19 

Corlett, J. P., & Co 25 

Crucible Steel Castings Co., The 24 

Dyson & Sons, Joseph 22 

Elliott, B. K., Company 24 

Erner Electric Co., The 16 

Great Lakes Dredge & Dry Dock Co 17 

Hauserman, E. P., Co., The Outside back cover 

Heinicke, H. R., Inc 7 

Illuminating Co., The 18 

Industrial Equipment Co 26 

Lakewood Engineering Co., The 11 

Loomis-Sielaff Co., The 23 

Lucas Machine Tool Co 2Z 

Lufkin Rule Co., The 19 

Lupton's Sons Co., David 20 

National Paving Brick Co., The 17 

Nelson Valve Co 25 

N. Y. C. R. R. Co., The 5 

Ohio Machine & Boiler Co., The 23 

Peerless Motor Car Co., The 9 

Penton Press Co 14 

Pittsburgh Valve, Foundry & Const. Co 24 

Professional Cards 2 

Reliance Electric & Engineering Co 23 

Roebling's Sons Co., John A 3 

Standard Parts Co., The Inside front cover 

Steel Improvement Co Inside back cover 

Strong, Carlisle & Hammond Co., The 4 

Ulmer Co., J. C, The 22 

Van Dorn Iron Works Co., The 15 

Vaughan Paint Company 25 

Wellman-Seaver-Morgan Co., The 13 

West_ Steel Casting Co., The 22 

Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co 21 



PROFESSIONAL CARDS 



Bates and Macklin 

Patent Lawyers 

1028 Society for Savings Building 
Cleveland, Ohio 



Albert H. Bates 



Justin W. Macklin 



BURTON P. FARAGHER 

LANDSCAPE 
DESIGN and CONSTRUCTION 

10600 Euclid Ave. Cleveland 



J. W. FRAZIER, Pres. R. E. SHEAL, Vice Pres. 

The Frazier-Sheal Company 

Engineers and Constructors 
Illuminating Building, CLEVELAND, OHIO 

Ore and Coal Handling Equipments 
Docks, Piers and Terminals 

Power and Industrial Plants 
Blast Furnaces, Open Hearth Steel Plants 



Chemical, Physical, Metallurgical, Metallo- 
graphical Laboratories 

T AMES H. H ERRON 

Consulting Metallurgical Engineer 
Specialist in the Examination. Selection and Ther- 
mal Treatment of Iron. Steel and other Metallic 
Alloys 
Design and Installation of Heat Treating Plants. 

2041 East Third St. CLEVELAND 



Hull,Smith,Brock&West 

Patents and Patent Causes 
1208 ILLUMINATING BUILDING 

Cleveland, Ohio 

John Bartlett Hull Harold E. Smith 

Brennan B. West 



EDWARD LINDMUELLER 

Consulting Engineer 



334 Williamson Bldg. 



Main 3127 



THE DRAFT SHOP 



Designers of Special Machinery 



General Drafting 



ERNEST McGEORGE 
CONSULTING ENGINEER 

LEADER BUILDING 
CLEVELAND 



The F. A. Pease Engineering Co. 

CIVIL ENGINEERS and 
SURVEYORS 



Marshall Building 



Cleveland 



WALTER KLIE 
Pres't 



WM. J. WETZELL 
Sec'y 



The Smith & Oby Company 

PLUMBING and HEATING 



1133-37 Bolivar Road S. E, 
CLEVELAND, O. 



Phones: Prospect 1390 



Central 4777 W 



EDGAR B. THOMAS 

CONSULTING CIVIL ENGINEER 

Guardian Bldg. 

CLEVELAND 

Investigations Estimates of Cost Designs 

Specifications Construction Appraisals 

Docks Piers Breakwaters Shore Protection 
Dredging Municipal Improvements 



THURSTON and KWIS 

Patent Lawyers 

1223-1229 CITIZENS BUILDING 
CLEVELAND 

E. L. Thurston A. F. Kwis A. J. Hudson 



The Watson Engineering Company 

1150 Leader-News Building 

CLEVELAND, OHIO 

Successors to Wilbur J. Watson & Company 

Design — Consultation 

Bridges — Buildings — Docks 

Dams — Special Structures 

Inspection and Tests of Materials 



ROEBLING WIRE ROPE 

: : THE EFFICIENT WIRE ROPE FOR SHOP OR FIELD ENGINEER : : 




Use Our 
Blue Center 
Steel Rope 



ROEBLING 



Complete 

Line of Wire 

Rope 

Fittings 



i 


SHME^^Sifil 


r^iii— iiiw III 



John A. Roebling's Sons Company 

Trenton, New Jersey 

AGENCIES AND BRANCHES: 

New York Boston Chicago Philadelphia Pittsburgh Cleveland Atlanta San Francisco 

Los Angeles Seattle Portland. Ore. 




One of many large factories equipped with Frankfort Furnaces Manufactured by 
The Strong, Carlisle & Hammond Co., Cleveland, Ohio 

YOU PAY FOR FIRST-CLASS HEAT-TREATING EVEN 
WHEN YOU DONT GET IT 



IF your heat-treating equipment is inferior, 
or you do not heat-treat every part of your 
product which should be heat-treated, you 
pay for it on sales and profits lost to competitors 
whose methods are better than yours. An in- 
vestment in Frankfort Industrial Furnaces is 
repaid in faster work, in deliveries made on 
schedule time, and finally in repeat sales from 
satisfied customers. 

Send for Catalogues Nos. 8 and 9 describing Frankfort Furnaces 
arranged for manufactured gas, natural gas or oil fuel. 

The Strong, Carlisle & Hammond Co. 

CLEVELAND, OHIO 

Branches: — Boston New York Chicago Philadelphia Detroit Pittsburgh 



HlCKELJ^ATE 

ROAD 

The Short Line 

with 

Through Train Service 



between 



Chicago Cleveland Buffalo 

Ft. Wayne - Erie - Elmira - Binghamton 
Scranton-Delaware Water Gap 

and 

NEW YORK CITY 



Observation - Library - Lounging Cars 

Standard Drawing-room Sleepers 

Through Day Coaches 

Between Chicago and New York City 



DINING CAR SERVICE 

A la Carte Meals, 23 cents and up 
Table d' Hote Luncheon, 50 cents 



Liberal Stop-overs at 

NIAGARA FALLS 

and other points 



A. W. JOHNSTON, JOHN Y. CALAHAN. 

Ass't to the President Gen. Passenger Agent 

CLEVELAND, O. 



I 





H. R. HEINICKE, Inc 

147 Fourth Avenue, New York City 
Foremost in the World 

Radial Brick Chimneys 
Common Brick Chimneys 
Linings for Steel Stacks 

No Division of Responsibility 

We dig the clay, burn the brick, 
calculate the stress, determine 
t he design,^^^l^^^^K build the 
chimney. 



Our brick 
Newcom- 
Ohio, is 
one in the 
State s 




yard at 
erstown, 
the only 
Un i t e d 
owned 



and operated by a chimney builder. 
OUR radials are not a by-product. 



^sk your Engineer 



Industrial 
Equipment Co. 

208 American Trust Bldg. 

Cleveland, Ohio 

District Sales Agents 
Main 876 




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Brute Power and 
Thundering Speed 

These are characteristics of the Peerless eighty horse- 
power Eight in its Sporting Range. In its contrasting range of 
power, the Loafing Range, it gives that quiet, smooth, flexible 
performance one rightly expects of a car of real class. 

Let the Peerless Distributor demonstrate to you this 
remarkable two power-range performance. 



Roadster & Touring $2090 
(f. 0. b. Cleveland, subject to 
change without notice) 



The 

Peerless Motor Car Co. 

C lev e land y Ohio 



"yf^W- 




TeeiiLess eight 



^ 






1^ 







Plan for Steel that's Ready 

n^HE structural steel for 1,000 lineal feet of 
^ Austin Standard No. 3 is ready-fabricated 
and in stock. There's 100,000 square feet of 
first-class manufacturing floor-space that can 
be ready for occupancy in 30 working-days 
after the order is placed. 

As will be seen from the above cross-section, 
Austin Standard No. 3 is 100 feet wide. It may be 
any desired length, in multiples of 20 feet. Its 
excellent daylight and broad areas of unobstructed 
floor space admirably adapt it to widely diverse re- 
quirements. 

Engineers who make their designs conform to 
Austin Standards can count upon the thorough co- 
operation of The Austin Company. We work in con- 
junction with or under the direction of the owner's 
engineer. 

Information in Detail Upon Request. 




THE AUSTIN COMPANY 



14230 Euclid Avenue 



Cleveland 



10 




LAKEWOOD CARS IN USE BY KELLEY ISLAND 
LIME AND TRANSPORT CO. 



THE LAKEWOOD 
ENGINEERING CO. 



Mario 3 170 



Cleveland 



Manufacturers of 



FACTORY, QUARRY, 
FOUNDRY and MINE 
CARS and TRUCKS 



II 



^A Good Book and Stationery Store^^ 



REAL SERVICE 



^In attending to your requirements 
we make a special feature of furnishing 
prompt and efficient service. 

^If you are in a hurry for anything 
let us know and we will see that it is 
sent over to you just as soon as pos- 
sible. We do everything in our power 
to accommodate customers. 



Stationery Engraving Books 



Office Supplies Brass Goods 

Magazines Leather Goods 

Fountain Pens Photographic 
Office Furniture Supplies 

Kodaks Artists' Materials 



The Burrows Bros. Company 

John J. Wood, President. 

Guardian Bldg. - - - Cleveland, O. 



12 



The Wellman-Seaver-Morgan Co. 

Designers & Builders 
of 

Equipment for the economical handling 
of iron and steel in all stages of manufac- 
ture, from the ore to the finished product. 

Specializing in 

Automatic Vessel Unloaders 

Special Cranes 

Steam and Electric Mine Hoists 

Mechanical Gas Producers 

Charging and Manipulating Apparatus 

Coke Oven Machinery 

and 

Hydraulic Turbines especially designed 
for high efficiency 




The Wellman-Seaver-Morgan Co. 

CLEVELAND, OHIO 



13 



# 



THE PENTON PRESS COMPANY 

PERFECT PRINTING 

Penton Building 

Cleveland, 



.iiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiininniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin 

14 




A Cleveland Crane 

Busy At 

Porto Rico 



Span of Bridge 1 27 ft. in. 

Cantilever 95 ft. in. 

Trolley Track (above dock) 50 ft. in. 
Extreme Working Position 
of Bucket (from faceof dock) 72 ft. in. 
Extreme height of end of 
Cantilever when raised 

(above dock level) 142 ft. in. 

Weight of trolley loaded. . .40.000 lbs. 

Capacity (per hour) 1 80 tons 

Hopper Capacity 12 tons 

Bucket Capacity 2 tons (long) 

Speed of Hoist 300 FPM 

Travel of Trolley 800 " 

Travel of Bridge 175 " 

The structure was designed to withstand a wind pressure of 50 lbs. per sq. ft. and shortly after erection was subjected to the 
severe hurricane that swept the East Indies in the month of June, which caused severe damage over a large area but the crane 
weathered it through without a mishap. 

The Gantry Crane with hinged cantilever was designed and manufactured by The Cleveland Crane & Engineering Co., at 
Wickliffe, Ohio, and erected by them at San Juan. Porto Rico, for the Porto Rico Coal Co. It is used to unload coal from 
vessels, either depositing same in storage pile or load into cars. It is also used for fueling vessels. A portable hopper with 
telescope spout being attached to cantilever at any desired point, being used to put coal in the bunker hatches. This attach- 
ment weighs 15,000 lbs. 

The structure is rigid and has been very thoroughly tested. 

The machinery is operated from a cage just under the cantilever hinge point. Alternating Current motors being used 
throughout. 

THE CLEVELAND CRANE 



50 Church St.. New York 



& ENGINEERING CO. 
WICKLIFFE, OHIO 



First Nat'l Bank Bldg., Pittsburg 



The Van Dorn Iron Works Co 

CLEVELAND, OHIO 

General Iron Workers 



SPECIALTIES : 

PRISON CONSTRUCTION 

CELL WORK LOCKING DEVICES TOOL PROOF_STEEL 

WINDOW GUARDS, ETC. 



METAL FURNITURE 



FILE CASES DESK AND OFFICE FURNITURE 

SHOP SHELVING AND SHOP EQUIPMENT 



LOCKERS 



Ornamental Iron and Bronze 
Structural Steel 



15 




Recognized Standard For 

Quality 

Speed 

Durability 

Safety 



BROWNHOIST 
Locomotive Crane 

Quality is the standard 
recognized by many of 
the largest crane users in 
the world. Repeat orders 
prove this. Another proof 
is the claim of many oper- 
ators that they can do 
20% to 50% more work 
in a day with a Brownhoist 
than with any other crane 
that they have operated. 
It pays to buy Brown 
hoist Cranes. 

Catalog I sent on request 

The Brown Hoisting 
Machinery Co. 
Cleveland, Ohio 

Engineers and Manufacturers 
of Heavy Dock Machinery, 
Bridge Cranes, etc., as well as 
smaller cranes and Hoists. 

Branch Offices in: 
New York. Pittsburgh, Chicago, 
San Francisco, and 
(Portland, Ore., ColbyEngr. Co.) 




Banner 
National Mazda Lamps 

will give you from three to 
six times as much light as 
carbon lamps give without 
increasing your lighting bill. 
Equip your home, office, 
store or factory with them. 



The Erner Electric Company 

St. Clair Ave., and E. 2nd St. 



16 



Great Lakes 
Dredge and Dock Company 

We are organized and equipped to do all kinds of 
submarine work, River and Harbor Improvements, 
Dredging, Pile Driving, Reinforced Concrete 
Piles, Foundations, Bridges, Piers, Breakwaters, 
Light Houses, Tunnels and Pneumatic Work. 

We are operating in all the harbors on the GREAT 
LAKES, with offices in 

Chicago, Cleveland, Duluth, Sault Ste. Marie 

Gary, Ind., Buffalo and 

Amherstburg, Ontario, Canada 

A Forward Step In Highway Engineering 

is secured in monolithic vitrified brick pavements. By this process 
the vitrified brick wearing surface is laid in the green concrete foun- 
dation or on a sand-cement superfoundation. Either way produces 
a single solid slab. 

Economy in materials, labor and time of construction are effected. 
The type possesses the inherent qualities of stability and endurance un- 
der modern traffic conditions. 

Write for specifications: 
Green Concrete Foundation Type. Sand Cement Superfoundation Type. 




List of Competing Manufacturers who are Members of 

Alliance Clay Products Co., Alliance, O. 

Alton Brick Co., Alton, 111. 

Athens Brick Company, Athens, O. 

The Barr Clay Co., Streator, 111. 

Big Four Clay Co., Canton, O. 

Boone Brick, Tile & Pav. Co., Boone, la. 

Brick & Stone Co., Waynesburg, Pa. 

Burton-Townsend Co., Zanesville, O. 

Carlyle Paving Brick Co., Portsmouth, O. 

F. R. Carter, Peoria, 111. 

Cleveland Brick & Clay Co., Cleveland, O. 

Clinton Paving Brick Co., Clinton, Ind. 

Danville Brick Company, Danville, 111. 

Denny-Renton Clay & Coal Co., Seattle, Wash. 

R. Dobson, Rondebosch Cape, S. .A.frica. 

Hocking Valley Brick Co., Nelsonville, O. 

John Kline Brick Co., Wickliffe, O. 

Kushequa Brick Co., Kushequa, Pa. 

Lincoln Paving Block Co., Canton, O. 

Lucke, F. W. & Co., Chicago, 111. 

C. P. Mayer Brick Co., BridgeviUe, Pa. 

Medal Paving Brick Co., Cleveland, O. 



the National Paving Brick Manufacturers Association 

Metropolitan Pav. Brick Co., Canton, O. 

Morgantown Brick Co., Morgantown, W. Va. 

Nelsonville Brick Co., Nelsonville, O. 

Newburgh Brick & Clay Co., Cleveland, O. 

Peebles Paving Brick Co., Portsmouth, O. 

C. E. Poston, Attica, Ind. 

Poston Paving Brick Co., Crawfordsville, Ind. 

Scioto Fire Brick Co., Sciotoville, 0. 

Sharon Clay Products Co., Sharon, Pa. 

Shawmut Paving Brick Works, Shawmut, Pa. 

A. F. Smith Co., New Brighton, Pa. 

Jos. Soisson Fire Brick Co., Connellsville, Pa. 

Springfield Paving Brick Co., Springfield, 111. 

Standard Brick Co., Crawfordsville, Ind. 

Sterling Brick Company, Olean, N. Y. 

Streator Clay Mfg. Co., Streator, 111. 

Thornton Fire Brick Company, Clarksburg, W. Va. 

Thurber Brick Co., Thurber, Texas. 

Trimble Paving Brick Co., Dayton, O. 

United Brick Co., Greensburg, Pa. 

Western Clay Mfg. Co., Helena, Mont. 

Windsor Brick Co., Akron, O. 



NATIONAL PAVING BRICK MFRS. ASSN. 

WILL P. BLAIR. SECY, ENGINEERS BLDG., CLEVELAND, OHIO 



17 



Noi Mcrcli^ Ehciric Li^kt^ 

Bui Also Rlujninaiing Service 

There Is a Difference 

The Dluminaiin^ Company 



:^PH^ 




W 



The value of Bell Telephone Service to you 
in your commercial, home and social life is 
unestimable. 

Over 



81,000 

Bell telephones in Cleveland connecting 

9,200,000 

others throughout the United States 

For extensive telephone service at reasonable rates call 

THE CLEVELAND TELEPHONE COMPANY 

Champlain and West 3rd Telephone Building Main 9900 



18 



Worm Reduction 
Gears 




UNITS 
COMPLETE 

in every 

respect 

from 

14 to 500 
H. p. 



THE CLEVELAND WORM & GEAR COMPANY 

Cleveland, Ohio 



^^ /UF/C/N 



Omi^ 




on the market is recommended to you 

BY US, ITS MAKERS; 

BY ALL THOSE WHO HAVE USED OUR GOODS; 

BY THE DEALER WHO HANDLES IT; 

BY THE APPEARANCE OF THE ARTICLE ITSELF. 

A. F'our-F'olcl Guarantee 

THE^^fKfN/^ULeCo. SAGINAW, MICH. 

NEW YORK LONDON, ENG. WINDSOR, ONT. 



19 




Products in Rolled Steel for Efficient Daylighting 
and Natural Ventilation 

LUPTON PRODUCTS 

Lupton Steel Sash Pond Continuous Sash 

Pivoted Factory Type /o'" Monitors, Sawtooihs, upper side 

r, J 7 T 7 m walls and Pond Truss 

Lounterbalanced Type 

Counterweighted Type Pond Operating DcvicC 

Power House Type for long lines of sash 

Projected Ventilator Type Lupton Steel Partitions 

Lupton Rolled Steel Skylight Lupton Steel Tube Doors 

Send for your copy of the new No. 9 Catalogue 

David Lupton's Sons Company 

Memphis and Westmoreland Streets PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

Cleveland Ofbce 
806 SWETLAND BUILDING 



CLEVELAND 

FROG & CROSSING CO. 

Manufacturers of 

HIGHEST QUALITY 
FROGS, CROSSINGS and SWITCHES 

OF ALL KINDS 

STREET RAILWAY SPECIAL WORK 




SWITCH STANDS SPLICE BENDING MACHINES 

GUARD RAIL CLAMPS GUARD RAILS 

RAIL BRACES INSULATED TIE RODS 

CLEVELAND, OHIO 



20 




Maximum plant effi- 
ciency is possible when 

WESTINGHOUSE 
MILL MOTORS 



Westinghouse Direct Current Mill Motor aTC USecl, 



H 



IGH plant efficiency — a continued daily output near the maximum capacity of the 
machines in operation — is possible only when the machinery is in continuous 
operation, when there are few shut-downs for repairs. 

Westinghouse mill motors give the kind of service that is necessary in obtaining maxi- 
mum plant efficiency. They are designed to meet the actual service requirements, and 
are, above all, reliable. 

The records of plants where a large number of Westinghouse motors have been in ser- 
vice several years, show that the shut-downs due to repairs of motors are 75 per cent less 
than those of the average plant not equipped with mill type motors. 

Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co., East Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Cleveland Office, S wetland Bldg. 




21 



THE J. C. ULMER CO. 

CLEVELAND, 0. 


ULMER Transits and Levels. 

All makes of instruments repaired. 

Accurate Tool, Gauge, Die, Jig, and Fixture Work. 

Automobile Production Tools. 

Models and Special Light Machinery Built. 


The password for nearly a quarter of a Century 
for good work' 


**Go to Ulmers, they will do it right.'' 


ESTABLISHED 1893 




PROTECT YOUR MEN WITH THE 



Pat. Pending 



Accidents due to protruding set-screws are prevented by 
using Anti-Accident Lathe Dogs. Made of crucible cast 
steel any size, shape or form. Recommended by Liability 
Companies and Factory Inspectors. Send for Booklet. 

Xlie West Steel CastiriQ Co. 

Small Steel Castings Crucible and Converter 

Special Dynamo Steel for Electrical Castings 

Quality CLEVELAND, OHIO Service 



SHAFTING CRANKSHAFTS SPINDLES 

WELDLESS RINGS LARGE NUTS DIE BLOCKS 

Forgings up to 8000 lbs. weight; Smooth -Forged, Rough-Machined 
or Finished. Estimates furnished on all kinds of Job Forgings. 



Jos. Dyson £i Sons 



5125 ST. CLAIR AVE. 
CLEVELAND, O. 



22 



BELL. MAIN 609 CUY. CEN. 730 

The Ohio Machine & Boiler Co. 

BOILER MAKERS, MACHINISTS 

AND 

STRUCTURAL IRON WORKERS 

Self Supporting Steel Stack, Steel Pressure Tank and repairs of all kinds. 
1501-9 UNIVERSITY ROAD CLEVELAND, OHIO 



PRECISION 



BORING, DRILLING 
AND MILLING 
MACHINE 



^P: 



Ltucas Jrower rorcing Jrress 
LUCAS MACHINE TOOL CO 

CLEVELAND, OHIO, U. S. A. 



AMNOUISrCElVIENX 

We are pleased to announce to the members of the Cleveland 
Engineering Society, that we have recently built and equipped 
a plant at 6616 Morgan Ave. We are prepared to undertake 
the designing and building of special machinery and the pro- 
duction of parts. Our equipment is the best obtainable, and 
our machinery is all new. Estimates cheerfully furnished. 

THE LOOMIS-SIELAFF CO. 



Reliance Motors 

For D. C or A. C. Circuits 
Constant and Adjustable Speed 

^^-^ Made in 

Reliance Electric and Engineering Co. (M^lllld 




23 



SMALL ELECTRIC STEEL CASTINGS 



ALL ALLOY STEELS ACCORDING TO SPECIFICATIONS 
MAGNETIC STEEL FOR ELECTRICAL PURPOSES 



THE CRUCIBLE STEEL CASTINGS CO 

CORNER CHAMPLAIN AND CANAL RD. 
CLEVELAND, OHIO 



Pittsburgh Valve, Foundry & Construction Co. 

PITTSBURGH, PA. 

VALVES, PIPING, SPECIALTIES 
DESIGNERS, BUILDERS and ERECTORS of PIPING INSTALLATIONS 

"Atwood" Joints, "Interlock" Welds, "Atwood" Line Welds, 
"Atwood" Separators, "Atwood" Non-return Valves. Stand- 
ard and special equipment for any pressure or service. 

HENRY M. WILSON, District Agent 

1308 ROCKEFELLER BLDG. CLEVELAND, OHIO 




T. 


H. 


BROOKS CSt, CO. 

Floor and Sidewalk Lights 
Structural and Ornamental 

IRON WORK 


CLEVELAND, 


:: :: OHIO 



B. 


K. 


ELLIOTT COlVIRANfY 

1 Importers and Manufacturers of 

^,-^,-.,-^ Drawing: Materials and 










|rSteiMiii|S^ Surveying Instruments 






WK/B^B^^^ Complete line of Engineers', Architects' and 
^^^^^^r Draughtsmen's Supplies. 




i 


i|Qp Blue Printing 

BELL PHONE 4667 
737 Prospect Ave., East 



24 



Brierley Machine Co. 



SPECIAL TOOLS 

GAUGES 
and MACHINERY 



Prospect 2695 1736 E. 22nd St. 

CLEVELAND 



The Chase Machine Co. 

2313 Elm Street N. W. 
CLEVELAND 

Hoisting Engines 
Dairy Machinery 

Excellent Facilities for Job 
and Repair Work 



THE W. S. BIDLE COMPANY 

SCIENTIFIC HEAT TREATING, CASE CARBONIZING, HARD- 
ENING, TEMPERING, ANNEALING, TENSILE TESTING 



1411 East 45th Street 



Cleveland 



CORLETT & CO 



Rockefeller 
Building 




Cleveland, 
Ohio 



REINFORCING BARS 




c^?-:"f;VV; :>">^^%:::^-^g^ ^ ^^ 



N&LSONVAD/ES 




AMERICAN STEEL & WIRE CO.'S 

AlVIERICAIV WIRE ROPE 

in all standard forms of construction 

Non-spinning, flattened strand and flat made of iron, crucible, cast steel and monitor plow steel. 
Hoisting rope of every description; copper cable and strand for all electrical purposes. Fittings and appli- 
ances for use with wire rope. Read about wire rope usage in its different requirements in American Wire Rope 
News. Gladly sent free to anyone upon request. 

Chicago New York Worcester Cleveland Pittsburgh 

The Vaughan Paint Company 

CLEVELAND, OHIO 

Makers Genuine High Grade 

Metal Protective Coatings 
Acid Resisting Paints 
Damp Proofing 

Concrete Paints 

W. C. R. Wood Preserving Oil (Carbolineum) imported 



25 



^ 




■ 


^J Electrical Apparatus of Merit: 

9^Hr Transformers; Distributing, Power and Constant Current. 

I^H Lighting; Industrial, Commercial and Street. 

mwU Gyrofans — Oscillating Fans — Auto Electrical Accessories. 

H^^^l Manufactured by 

|H The Adams - Bagnall Electric Co. 

P^ CLEVELAND, OHIO 




w 



FACTORY SUPPLIES 

Of Every Description 

SEAMLESS TUBING 

National Tube Co. 

PLATING SUPPLIES 

Complete 

MACHINERY 

Metal and Wood Working 

1427-37 w. Sixth St., The Cleveland Tool & Supply Co., Cleveland, ohio 



'HEN courteous 
treatment is 
combined with fair 
dealing you have the 
passwords of our 
success. 




The Michigan Pipe Co. 



Before installing — Costs less, can be shipped immediately 
from large stocks, easily unloaded and hauled. 
While installing — Light to handle, no caulking, no skilled 
labor, no special tools, shallow trench. 
After installing — Corrosion proof. Does not scale, 
pit, nor clog. No tuberculation. Cannot burst under 
excessive pressure. Preserved by the water it carries. 
Frost proof. Sanitary. Larger capacity due to less 
friction. 

INDUSTRIAL EQUIPMENT CO., Cleveland, Ohio 

208 American Trust Building 



DISTRICT SALES AGENTS 



Main 876 



Mention 

''The Conquerors 

when writing advertisers 

26 



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W 7^ 



The 

iteel Imiiroveiiieii 



..irlllhi. 

Heat Treated Drop Forgings 

..rrlllli... 

.etallurffica. 



..ilillh.. 



SCIENTIFIC 

Heat Treating 



I 



THE E. F. HAUSERMAN CO. 



Organized For Service 



What our slogan 

'Organized For Service* 

means to you. 



A GOOD PRODUCT— past the period of experimentation— from 

a manufacturer keenly alive both to the possibilities and responsibilities 

of his business. 



A THOROUGH KNOWLEDGE OF ITS APPLICATION— 

the result only of concentration and extensive experience. 



A COMPLETE INSTALLATION— by capable men directly and 
continually under our employ and supervision. 



A REASONABLE COST — possible because of a large volume of 
business backed by substantial financial resources. 

A SATISFIED CUSTOMER. 




ERECTED PAINTED GLAZED 

1729 E. 22nd St., 815 Oliver Bldg. 

CLEVELAND, O. PITTSBURG, PA. 

























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